The F.B.I. Essay - 1111 Words

The F.B.I. To uphold the law through the investigation of violations of federal criminal law; to protect the U.S. from foreign intelligence and terrorist activities; to provide leadership and law enforcement assistance to federal, state, local, and international agencies; and to perform these responsibilities in a manner that is responsive to the needs of the public and is faithful to the constitution of the U.S.: this is the mission of the Federal Bureau of Investigation. The agency now known as the Federal Bureau of Investigation was founded in 1908 when the Attorney General appointed an unnamed force of Special Agents to be the investigative force of the Department of Justice (DOJ). Before that time, the DOJ had to borrow†¦show more content†¦With all of this responsibility, it is logical to say that the FBI is a field-oriented organization. They have nine divisions and four offices at FBI Headquarters in Washington, D.C. These divisions and offices provide direction and support services to 56 field offices and approximately 10,100 Special Agents and 13,700 other employees. Each FBI field office is overseen by a Special Agent in Charge, except for those located in New York City and Washington, D.C. Due to their large size, those offices are each managed by an Assistant Director in Charge. FBI field offices conduct their official business both directly from their headquarters and through approximately 400 satellite offices, known as resident agencies. The FBI also operates specialized field installations: two Regional Computer Support Centers; one in Pocatello, Idaho, and one in Fort Monmouth, New Jersey -- and two Information technology Centers (ITCs); one at Butte, Montana, and one at Savannah, Georgia. The ITCs provide information services to support field investigative and administrative operations. Because they do have so much responsibility, their investigative authority is the broadest of all federal law enforcement agencies. The FBI also stresses long term, complex investigation, emphasize close relations and information sharing with other federal, state, local, and foreign law enforcement and intelligence agencies. A significant number of FBI investigations are conductedShow MoreRelatedThe Assassination of Malcolm X Essay1102 Words   |  5 PagesO.S.S. and t he F.B.I. infiltrated the ranks of the Organisation of African American Unity with spies, informants, and local police agents (1). B.O.S.S. constantly worked to undermine the Muslims and Malcolm X. They worked day-in and day-out to follow Malcolm, and planned to shut him down permanently if they caught a whiff of any wrongdoings. The F.B.I. cooperated with B.O.S.S. by giving them access to government information that other agencies did not have. Publicly, the F.B.I. seemed to be inRead MoreRussian Democracy Case Study876 Words   |  4 Pagesforeign policy adviser, George Papadopoulos, had been lying to them (Ward, 2017). Papadopoulos repeatedly told the F.B.I. that he wasnt in any contact with Russia during the 2016 election. To this day he was apparently still contacting Russia because someone there said that they would go and tell him some secrets about Hillary Clintons emails and secrets (Waldman, 2017). The F.B.I. eventually got enough evidence on him to arrest him on July 27th. According to Vox.com Papadopoulos originally pleadedRead MoreUse Of A Master Key Expose Other Citizens Who Are Not Terrorists? Essay1384 Words   |  6 Pagesdata, track your location, or even access your phone’s microphone or camera without your knowledge.† (Cook), this openness cannot be allowed to happen to innocent citizens. In Mike Isaacs article Why Apple Is Putting Up a Fight Over Privacy With the F.B.I he quotes Apple CEO by saying â€Å"Apple’s opposition is mostly ideological â€Å"The same engineers who built strong encryption into the iPhone to protect our users would, ironically, be ordered to weaken those protections and make our users less safe,†Ã¢â‚¬ Read MoreHow Apple Has Satisfied The Warrant Issued By The Government Side With Smith V. Maryland Essay1319 Words   |  6 Pagesby devoting resources around the clock. [1] But apparently the F.B.I. knows Apple is cooperating to the best of their ability; however, the F.B.I. is taki ng advantage of this opportunity to force Silicon Valley into giving them access to all their gadgets going forward by setting precedents with Apple. First, the F.B.I. uses the word terrorism to elicit support from the government and public opinion. James Comey, the head of the F.B.I., said the resolution of the Apple case would guide the way theRead MoreThe Black Panther Party For Self Defense1719 Words   |  7 Pagesliberties, great dangers, and advancement of social needs, individuals around the globe can appreciate some of their adjustments, for example, free breakfast programs. The development and developments of the Black Panther Party were coordinated by the F.B.I, who tried to cut each gathering part down; and additionally their radical organizations together, for example, The Resistance, (which fueled the resurrection of the gathering amid tough times), and the courageous ladies who joined the gathering, forRead MoreThe Psychic Powers Of Drugs1018 Words   |  5 Pagesdr ugs. This use of psychics as a means to â€Å"snuff out marijuana† is a part of an F.B.I. and D.E.A. secret project that was just brought about to President O’Bama. After leaving a meeting with the F.B.I., the psychic, Former U.S. Senator and current University of Oklahoma President, David DeBoren, suddenly has a â€Å"psychic experience† and begins speaking in tongues in the car while his interpreter is driving. There were no F.B.I. or D.E.A. agents in the car with the two men. DeBoren’s interpreter translatesRead MoreSummary : The Nightmare 956 Words   |  4 Pagesday of her life.† (Caught by a Predator, Gilkerson, 2012, para. 10). That day, Kozakiewicz hear a bang and shouts of from a group of men. She was terrified and crawled under the bed. Then she saw the three greatest letters in the English alphabet, F.B.I. in bright yellow letters and she knew she was safe. That saw day also saw Tyree placed in handcuffs. â€Å"He (Tyree) pleaded guilt y in 2003 to the federal crimes of traveling in interstate commerce for the purpose of engaging in a sexual act with a minorRead MoreJudicial Administration Essay1689 Words   |  7 Pagesstills falls within the jurisdiction of that state. If the F.B.I. decides to take over the case regardless of where the crime took place then the case would be heard in federal court. The case involving Jed, Herman and Jane when they were apprehended by the police all they had in their position was $25,000 in cash which was recovered by police and they did not need a warrant being that they fit the description of the suspects. The F.B.I could take over the case because banks are protected by federalRead More Patriot Act Essays1231 Words   |  5 Pagesless free one. They believe that it does not uphold our fundamental rights and freedoms. They want Congress to limit the sharing of information through wiretapping between the government, so as to preserve their privacy. The ACLU also believes the F .B.I., has been given too long a leash, that the Patriot Act has overstepped its boundaries. The ACLU has issued eighteen sheets, written dozens of letters to Congress and the Bush administration, and made hundreds of TV and radio appearances, calling onRead MoreWhy Should Law Enforcement Should Use Backdoors For Investigations?1449 Words   |  6 PagesApple’s iPhone that was connected to the San Bernardino terrorist attack in the year of 2015. While the FBI won’t disclose the method they used to get into the apple iPhone, it did disclose information to local law enforcement. From the article â€Å"The F.B.I. is Sharing Its Secret For Breaking into IPhones† states, â€Å" The FBI has sent out a memo to local law enforcement agencies, telling them it can provide technical assistance to help solve other cases where encrypted Apple devices could contain evidence†

Production Cost Analysis Free Essays

Production Cost Analysis: Economic Analysis as a tool for Process Development: Harvest of a High Cell-Density Fermentation For the biotech industry to be profitable, it must consider economics along with process recovery, purity, and product quality. The number of biotechnology-based human therapeutic products in the late-stage pipeline, and the average cost to commercialize a biotech product, have steadily increased. 1,2  This has required biotech companies to use economic analysis as a tool during process development and for making decisions about process design. We will write a custom essay sample on Production Cost Analysis or any similar topic only for you Order Now Process development efforts now aim to create processes that are economical, as well as optimal and robust. 3-6 |[pic] | Novais et al. recently performed an economic comparison of conventional versus disposables-based technology for the production of an antibody fragment from an  E. coli  fermentation. 7The authors concluded that the capital investment required for a disposables-based option is substantially reduced—less than 60% of that for a conventional option. The disposables-based running costs were 70% higher than those of the conventional equivalent. However, the net present value of the disposables-based plant was found to be positive and within 25% of that for the conventional plant. More recently, the economic feasibility of using disposables has been examined for facility design, highlighting the need to perform a thorough analysis for the application at hand. 8,9 |[pic] | |Quick Recap | Harvesting biotechnology products from cell culture or fermentation process streams is often performed by a combination of several-unit operations. Centrifugation, depth filtration, and microfiltration are commonly used. In a recent publication, different harvest approaches were investigated for a case study involving recovery of a therapeutic protein from  Pichia pastoris  fermentation broth. 10 |[pic] | |Figure 1. Schematics for options 1 and 2 | that are examined in this economic analysis | This article, the seventh in the â€Å"Elements of Biopharmaceutical Production† series, describes how economic analysis can be used to compare different processes and assist in designing an â€Å"economical† option. BACKGROUND |[pic] | |Table 1. Comparison of process performance | |for option 1 and option 2. Adapted from | |reference 10. | Figure 1 illustrates the two options that will be examined in this economic analysis. Option 1 involves a three-unit operation harvest process: centrifugation, followed by depth filtration, and completed with a concentration and buffer exchange via tangential flow ultrafiltration–diafiltration (UF–DF). Option 2 involves a two-unit operation process: microfiltration followed by a concentration and buffer exchange via tangential flow filtration (UF–DF). Table 1 presents a comparison of process performance under the two options. Under optimal conditions, both options can deliver the desired product recovery ( 80%), harvest time ( How to cite Production Cost Analysis, Essay examples

Rock Music Notes Essay Example For Students

Rock Music Notes Essay The Lone Ranger is an example of: C: A popular network radio program that was adopted for television 7) All of the following rhythm and blues artists recorded for Atlantic Records, except: A: Hank Williams (Country Artist) 8) In the late sasss and early sasss, the British music industry was dominated by: A: Large companies and major labels 9) The Beetles first song released by Persephone was: a: Love Me DO 10) l Want to Hold Your Hand by the Beetles has what song form? C: ABA 1 1) True/False: the lyrics in the B section could be related to Hokes blues songs: 2) All of the following describe Tomorrow Never Knows by the Beetles as a structural work of art, except: A: Structural format found in American Pop (Also example of simple verse) Week 6 Notes 1) Who did Bob Dylan want to meet in New York after moving there in 1960? C) Woodier Guthrie 2) What song form does The Times They Are a Changing use? A) Simple Verse 3) The urban folk revival: E) All of the above Started in the late sass, was headquartered in Greenwich Village, NY, Was a revival of traditional folk music by artists like Woodier Gunter and Pete Swear, and encephalographic consisted of college age adults 4) Bob Dylan performance at the Newport Folk Festival D) All of the above Excited half the audience, annoyed half the audience, and inspired rock artists to Follow? C) Contrasting Verse Chorus 6) Which of the following best describes the attitude of Like a Rolling Stone? A) Take a hard look in the mirror 7) Which of the following movies featuring the Beetles inspired Roger Miscuing to buy a 12 string Racketeers guitar? C) Hard Days Night 8) Which of the following best describes how the Birds recording of Mr.. Tambourine Man fits into popular music conventions? Minute radio friendly duration, used studio musicians to record the song, and had pleasant vocal harmonies and musical sound 9) All of the following describe how the Birds song Eight Miles High fits the psychedelic rock music profile except: B) Short song duration 10) Early songs by Bob Dylan focused on: B) Social injustices, civil rights, and protesting the Vietnam War 1 1) The first #1 international folk-rock song was: B) Mr.. Tambourine Man 12) What is the form of Unchained Melody by Phil Specter? E) None of the above It is not simple verse, simple verse chorus, contrasting verse chorus, or ABA 13) What is the meter of Unchained Melody? D) 12/8 14) What is the form of California Girls by the Beach Boys? C) Contrasting verse chorus 15) What is the meter of California Girls? C) 4/4 (according to the book) or D) 12/8 (according to professor) Week 7 Notes 1) Which of the following groups performed folk rock songs? The Mamas and the Papas, The Turtles, and The Birds 2) The album Pet Sounds by the Beach Boys is considered rock/pop musics first: B) Concept album 3) Paul McCarty favored all of the following on Penny Lane Except: D) Dark, heavy sounds 4) What form does A Day in the Life Follow? D) ABA 5) Which album by the Beach Boys took 37 years to be released a second time in its more complete form? A) SMILE 6) All of the following groups were part of the San Francisco psychedelic rock scene, except: 7) White Rabbit includes all of the following, except: D) Use of the acoustic guitar and orchestral percussion Week 8 Notes 1) The picture shown on the first slide represents: D) Album artwork for Led Zeppelins fourth album 2) Which of the following is representative of psychedelic rock music? .u21175b3233fd3ee7bf84047acf8565a0 , .u21175b3233fd3ee7bf84047acf8565a0 .postImageUrl , .u21175b3233fd3ee7bf84047acf8565a0 .centered-text-area { min-height: 80px; position: relative; } .u21175b3233fd3ee7bf84047acf8565a0 , .u21175b3233fd3ee7bf84047acf8565a0:hover , .u21175b3233fd3ee7bf84047acf8565a0:visited , .u21175b3233fd3ee7bf84047acf8565a0:active { border:0!important; } .u21175b3233fd3ee7bf84047acf8565a0 .clearfix:after { content: ""; display: table; clear: both; } .u21175b3233fd3ee7bf84047acf8565a0 { display: block; transition: background-color 250ms; webkit-transition: background-color 250ms; width: 100%; opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #95A5A6; } .u21175b3233fd3ee7bf84047acf8565a0:active , .u21175b3233fd3ee7bf84047acf8565a0:hover { opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #2C3E50; } .u21175b3233fd3ee7bf84047acf8565a0 .centered-text-area { width: 100%; position: relative ; } .u21175b3233fd3ee7bf84047acf8565a0 .ctaText { border-bottom: 0 solid #fff; color: #2980B9; font-size: 16px; font-weight: bold; margin: 0; padding: 0; text-decoration: underline; } .u21175b3233fd3ee7bf84047acf8565a0 .postTitle { color: #FFFFFF; font-size: 16px; font-weight: 600; margin: 0; padding: 0; width: 100%; } .u21175b3233fd3ee7bf84047acf8565a0 .ctaButton { background-color: #7F8C8D!important; color: #2980B9; border: none; border-radius: 3px; box-shadow: none; font-size: 14px; font-weight: bold; line-height: 26px; moz-border-radius: 3px; text-align: center; text-decoration: none; text-shadow: none; width: 80px; min-height: 80px; background: url(https://artscolumbia.org/wp-content/plugins/intelly-related-posts/assets/images/simple-arrow.png)no-repeat; position: absolute; right: 0; top: 0; } .u21175b3233fd3ee7bf84047acf8565a0:hover .ctaButton { background-color: #34495E!important; } .u21175b3233fd3ee7bf84047acf8565a0 .centered-text { display: table; height: 80px; padding-left : 18px; top: 0; } .u21175b3233fd3ee7bf84047acf8565a0 .u21175b3233fd3ee7bf84047acf8565a0-content { display: table-cell; margin: 0; padding: 0; padding-right: 108px; position: relative; vertical-align: middle; width: 100%; } .u21175b3233fd3ee7bf84047acf8565a0:after { content: ""; display: block; clear: both; } READ: Music of the Century EssayUse of strange/dissonant sounds, extended improvisation, surrealistic album artwork, music that is intended to take the listener on a Journey 3) All of the following are true of Led Zeppelin, except: C) Musical style rarely strayed beyond their blues based approach 4) Whole Lotto Love uses which of the following forms: C) Compound ABA 5) All of the following are representative of the heavy metal style; except: D) Lyrics that connect with the listener sincerely and tell a personal story 6) True/ False: Oozy Osborne was a hippie before being a member of Black Sabbath B) False 7) What song form is Whipping Post based on? What Pink Floyd album cover w as depicted on the previous slide? C) Wish you were here 9) Which of the following describes the inspiration behind Roundabout? B) A beautiful drive on a scenic mountain road 10) All of these are aspects of Money, except: E) Lyrics seem to celebrate acquiring as much money as humanly possible Week 10 Notes 1) All of the following are aspects of free form radio programming, except: B) Was started by San Francisco disc Jockey Tom Donahue 2) Which of the following is used by the record industry to signify the sale of a million copies? A) Platinum ) What was the motivation behind the songwriting for the songs on Rumors by Flooded Mac? C) Relationship issues between band members 4) What form does More Than a Feeling by Boston use? D) Compound ABA 5) All of the following are aspects of a refrain, except: D) Songs that use refrains usually have a chorus section as well 6) What song form does Spirit of the Radio follow? C) Popular British rock groups 8) All of the following where descriptions of the Ramose and their music, except: C) Radio friendly 9) What song form does Blitzkrieg Bop follow? Http://blob. Sins. Com. CNN/s/blob_44762c4101011 key. HTML

To Be An American Essays - American Cuisine, Canadian Cuisine

To Be an American In all of Americas history we have stole bits and pieces of traditions from other cultures. Throughout this we made new traditions of our own. Whether it is gathering around the table once a year to have a full course feast, visiting a loved one that has past away, and/or lighting up fireworks to celebrate our independence. This makes tradition inseparable in today's American society. Even though we all have different beliefs. The one tradition that all Americans have in common is Thanksgiving. Turkey, ham, mashed potatoes, yams, cranberry sauce, rolls, stuffing, apple pie, pumpkin pie, and anything else we stuff our face with. This is the time of the year that we come together as a family and forget the entire ruckus that happens during the year. It started way back when Christopher Columbus discovered this continent. It never would have happened if the pilgrims didn't meet the Indians. That shows you that it took two different cultures joining to celebrate to create an everlasting tradition. That is what American tradition is all about. Sharing with other cultures. To say tradition out weighs experience and vise versa is very ignorant. They coexist like peanut butter and jelly. Who makes a peanut butter sandwich without jelly? It is just that plain and simple. We have learned from many people and things. That is why we have holidays. Columbus day, Veterans Day, Memorial Day, and Martin Luther King's birthday have come through experience and we remember them to this day. They have shaped today's society and with their great minds and we have thanked them for that. In all actuality, Americans have developed vastly since the taking of this continent. We have soared to become one of the most powerful countries on earth. We did this with experience and our tradition of being very hard workers. We started from scratch and now look at us. We are the people that so many envy. All in all, Americans are people who combined their cultures and hard work to create tradition through their experience. That is what defines us as Americans.

Free Essays on Privitization

The normative theories justifying privatization as a direction for public policy draw their inspiration from several different visions of a good society. With the rise of conservative governments in Great Britain, the United States, and France, privatization has come primarily to mean two things: (I) any shift of activities or functions from the state to the private sector; and, more specifically, (2) any shift of the production of goods and services from public to private. The second, more specific definition of privatization excludes deregulation and spending cuts except when they result in a shift from public to private in the production of goods and services. Second, in the definition I am using, privatization refers to shifts from the public to the private sector, not shifts within sectors. Thus the conversion of a state agency into an autonomous public authority or state-owned enterprise is not privatization, though it may well put the enterprise on a commercial footing. When p rivatization is a demand-driven process, it does not require an absolute reduction in publicly produced services. If one shifts attention from the sphere of production to the sphere of consumption, one may alternatively define privatization as the substitution of private goods for public goods. A public good need not be produced by government. Any shift toward these forms of nonbroadcast television represents a privatization of consumption, even if the local cable service is municipally owned. In regard to production, "privatization of health care" might mean a transfer of medical facilities from public to private ownership; regarding consumption, it might refer to a shift in expenditures from public health (environmental protection, vaccinations, etc.) to individual medical care. Otherwise, I take privatization to mean a shift in the locus of the production of services from public to private. First, the cessation of public programs and disengagement of ... Free Essays on Privitization Free Essays on Privitization The normative theories justifying privatization as a direction for public policy draw their inspiration from several different visions of a good society. With the rise of conservative governments in Great Britain, the United States, and France, privatization has come primarily to mean two things: (I) any shift of activities or functions from the state to the private sector; and, more specifically, (2) any shift of the production of goods and services from public to private. The second, more specific definition of privatization excludes deregulation and spending cuts except when they result in a shift from public to private in the production of goods and services. Second, in the definition I am using, privatization refers to shifts from the public to the private sector, not shifts within sectors. Thus the conversion of a state agency into an autonomous public authority or state-owned enterprise is not privatization, though it may well put the enterprise on a commercial footing. When p rivatization is a demand-driven process, it does not require an absolute reduction in publicly produced services. If one shifts attention from the sphere of production to the sphere of consumption, one may alternatively define privatization as the substitution of private goods for public goods. A public good need not be produced by government. Any shift toward these forms of nonbroadcast television represents a privatization of consumption, even if the local cable service is municipally owned. In regard to production, "privatization of health care" might mean a transfer of medical facilities from public to private ownership; regarding consumption, it might refer to a shift in expenditures from public health (environmental protection, vaccinations, etc.) to individual medical care. Otherwise, I take privatization to mean a shift in the locus of the production of services from public to private. First, the cessation of public programs and disengagement of ...

How To Set Up Your Author Profile on Reedsy

How To Set Up Your Author Profile on Reedsy How To Set Up Your Author Profile on Reedsy In today’s competitive publishing landscape, ensuring that you have the most cohesive and effective online presence is a crucial challenge towards establishing an author brand. This is what the Reedsy profiles are for: we allow you to integrate all the information about your writing and your books in one single, customizable website. Here’s how to set it up and take full advantage of its capabilities!Seamless integrationsLet’s start with the easiest stuff. Reedsy allows you to integrate in one click with Goodreads, Twitter, Linkedin and your favourite blogging platform (WordPress, Tumblr or Blogger). That way, we just pull the relevant information to build your author profile for you!Your books, straight from AmazonNow to what matters: your books! We allow you to upload them by just copy-pasting their Amazon or Google Play URLs. Again, we’ll extract the relevant information.Customize it!Here’s where you have to do a bit of actual work. Write a nice, engaging â€Å"short summary† and â€Å"about me† that will prompt readers to â€Å"follow† you and leave their email address. Mention your reader magnet (if you have one) and share some personal stuff with your audience, so readers know the human being behind the books.Don’t forget your profile picture, if it’s not already there, and the cover image! These make your author profile truly unique and immediately recognisable to readers! The recommended specs are 400x400 for the profile picture and 900x450 for the cover image.Finally, make sure you’ve put the link to your personal website under your social media links. This way your Reedsy profile will act as the perfect SEO booster!If you have any questions about the author profiles, or want to help us make them better, leave your feedback in the comments below!

Focus Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Focus - Essay Example As a result, there was mass migration as they sought settlement to countries that they could live, achieve and participate as equal citizens. America offered such opportunities welcoming all immigrants owing to its developing industrial capabilities. There was a surge of Jewish immigrants from in mid-nineteenth century following a new era of violence and anti-Jewish sentiments in most regions of Europe. The interactions between Americans and immigrants was characterised by inclusion and assimilation where the immigrants adopted a new culture in order to fit into the new country (Klinger n.d).This was guaranteed by the American legal system, which acknowledged that all men were created equal and as such, they deserved equal opportunities in America. This is as opposed to the European version that described Jews by appearance, cultural, social and religious positions. Moreover, legal impositions in Europe by the majority Christian population were vastly strict against the Jews. However , the tranquillity that existed ceased in its roots as a court case legally established that the separation and discrimination were synonymous. This established ground for open discrimination against fellow Americans based on the colour of their skin as opposed to what they can do. In other words, the court assertion made discrimination legal thus legalising bigotry. This marks the beginning of racism and discrimination against Jew living in America (Foner, 2012). Arthur Miller’s novel is set in New York as the Second World War ends to be a direct confrontation to American anti-Semitism. The book focuses on Lawrence Newman, an American of English descent, and the personnel manager in large company who quits his job citing mistreatment. This owes to his resemblance to Jews after acquiring glasses, a sentiment shared by his mother. He shares prejudices of his neighbours who seem determined to confront a Jewish candy storeowner until he is on the receiving end of similar prejudi ces. Miller highlights discriminatory acts against Jews living in America in his time, which involves hiring procedures, residential places, political participation among others. Jews were denied employment opportunities in most establishments and applicants had to under vigorously screening to edge out Jewish candidates. The tactics used in denying such opportunities include exclusion, tokenism and quota system especially private industries with executive and management levels (Glock, 1979).As such, the Jews had difficulty in obtaining or maintaining positions in places of employment. This is echoed in Focus as Miller, describes how Newman has difficulty in landing a new job following his resemblance to Jews. Ironically, when he gets one, he is employed in a Jewish establishment that seems to embrace all. Similarly, the public generated negative sentiments towards the presence of Jewish residents within their neighbourhood. As such, extreme groups such as the Christian Front sought to engage violently their Jewish neighbours in a bid to scare them off the neighbourhood. The negative attitude towards Jews left no room for tolerance, which saw residents attached for their religious beliefs. This is no different in Miller’s book when alliances are forged against Jews ‘elements’ in the Focus neighbourhood. Jews were also not admitted in social clubs such as country clubs among other public places on a regular basis. This can be attributed to the social status of the members who were accorded respect depending on the company

Social environmental accounting Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Social environmental accounting - Essay Example The company has employed various internal management accounting systems and techniques in relation to the social and environmental issues facing it (Marinova, Annandale, & Phillimore 2010). One of such system includes acting responsibly. This involves Aviva insurance using scientific research on the social and environmental impacts responsibly and engaging in good governance and management of the organization (Dalal-Clayton & Sadler 2014). It is important for organizations to balance possible environmental, social and economic impacts, risks and opportunities across the economic, social and economic spheres. This is a highly complex task to Aviva, its managers and the society at large. The complexity that is brought about by this is made more difficult through the requirement to identify the significance of various types and even time horizons of the outcomes. There may be instances where there is a positive overall societal, environmental and economic outcome while other activities leads to a positive outcome on one side and negative outcome on the other. Organizations, therefore, face difficulties in coming up with strategy and actions to balance the environmental, s ocial and also their economic sustainability. Managers in Aviva recognize this and ensure that it is highly incorporated in the decision-making processed  making it to be within the organizations acceptable  behavior and impacts of a society (Burritt 2011). The second internal management accounting system is saving for various environmental projects. The organization through its management overseas the Aviva community funds to sustain the economic, societal and environmental aspects of the society (Docherty, Kira, & Shani 2008). The organization is also involved in the management of its environmental costs. The organization is increasingly becoming aware of their environmental sustainability responsibility in the society. This is considering that

Virtue Ethics Essay Example for Free

Virtue Ethics Essay In the field of bioethics, Aristotles ethics does not have the same practical force as action-based theories, especially when the dilemma in question involves deciding whether or not to do some particular action (pulling the plug on a patient). In any case, there are two ways we can apply the character based approach to bioethics. First, the specific healthcare provider (nurse, doctor, etc.) could continually ask themselves What kind of character do I want to have as a healthcare provider, and what actions are consistent with this character?. A healthcare provider can ask themselves whether a certain action reflects the kind of character they want to be associated with. On a more general scale, the healthcare industry itself could ask itself What kind of character do we want associated with the healthcare industry and how would this particular action contribute or take away from that character? Secondly, for Aristotle a virtuous action is a mean between two extremes. For example, bravery is the middle-point between cowardice and foolhardiness. However, it is not always clear whether every action is a mean of this way. How would pulling the plug on a patient fit in Aristotles golden mean analysis? I think the safest way to apply Aristotles theory would be to emphasize character, rather than get lost in the thickets of golden mean analysis. Using Aristotelian ethics to resolve particular cases is always difficult, because the question of what ought I to do? is always secondary to the question what ought I to become?. After all, Aristotle himself admits that we should not expect precision in ethical matters.

Parallels between The Movie, The Matrix and Platos Allegory Of The Cav

Parallels between The Movie, "The Matrix" and Plato's Allegory Of The Cave In Book VII of The Republic, Plato tells a story entitled "The Allegory Of The Cave." He begins the story by describing a dark underground cave where a group of people are sitting in one long row with their backs to the cave's entrance. Chained to their chairs from an early age, all the humans can see is the distant cave wall in from of them. Their view of reality is soley based upon this limited view of the cave which but is a poor copy of the real world. In addition to the chained people, there are other people in the cave. Plato refers to them as the puppet-handlers and they are the ones holding those in the cave captive. (It is important to realize that the prisoners do not realize this--in fact, the prisoners do not even realize that they are being held captive since this existence is all they have ever known.) Walking behind the prisoners, the puppet-handlers hold up various objects found in the real world. Due to a fire that is burning the mouth of the cave, the prisoners are able to see the objects and each other only as distorted, flickering shadows on the cavern wall in front of them. Unfortunately, the prisoners can not see the actual objects or the puppet-makers because they are unable to turn their heads. From childhood, "...their legs and necks [have been] in bonds so that they are fixed, seeing only [what is] in front of them.... As Plato goes on to later explain, "the truth would be literally nothing but the shadows of the images." The movie, "The Matrix," parallels Platos's Allegory Of The Cave in a number of ways. Similar to the prisoners of the cave, the humans trapped in the matrix (the cave) only see what the machines (the modern day puppet-handlers) want them to see. They are tricked into believing that what they hear in the cave and see before them is the true reality that exists. Furthermore, they accept what their senses are telling them and they believe that what they are experiencing is all that really exists--nothing more. However, Neo is forced to face a painful truth when he is removed from the pod that has kept him trapped in the virtual reality of the matrix. Neo discovers that what he has been presented with his entire life is only reflections, or merely shadows of the truth. This theme is carried throughout the movie as we see ... ...yone to take them out of the cave. They would fight to stay in the cave because it is the only world they have ever known and it is where they feel safe. In "The Matrix," Cypher kills several people in his quest to go back to the matrix (the cave). Morpheus tells Neo the same thing in regard to the humans still plugged or trapped in the world of the matrix. "You have to understand, most of these people are not ready to be unplugged [forced out of the matrix--the cave]. And many of them are so inert, so hopelessly dependent on the system that they will fight to protect it." Society's Role In Our Lives In conclusion, Plato's story of the cave brings up many philosophical points and most importantly, addresses the issue of society's role in our lives. To some degree, we are all influenced by the thoughts and actions of others; however, at the same time, we have the ability to question, draw our own conclusions, and ultimately make our own choices. As Trinity tell Neo, "The Matrix can not tell you who you are." By being courageous enough to turn around and take the red pill, we, just like Neo and the Freed Man, are making the first step towards personal independence.

Juvenile and False Confession

I have heard the police repeat the Miranda right time and again in television movies involving police and crime suspect. Prior to my MS in forensic psychology program in Walden University, I had not the slightest idea that the words embedded in Miranda rights are actually legal right, I thought they were mere lines used in movie acting and I never envisaged its importance; even Police in Nigerian movies recites this right to crime suspects even though the Nigerian constitution is silence about such right.Historically, Miranda right was a landmark decision of the United States Supreme Court which passed 5-4 in 1966 in the lawsuit Miranda v. Arizona, 384 U. S. 436. Miranda rights gives suspects the right to remain silent when arrested, the knowledge that any statement made can be used against them in a Court of law and an understanding they have the right to an attorney and they reserve the right to waive this right and succumb to interrogation by the police. Research abound that addre sses the inability of juveniles in fully comprehending the implication of waiving Mirada rights.Ferguson, Jimenez & Jackson (2010) conducted literature review of relevant research studies and lawsuits to establish the fact that juveniles are not properly developed to make informed decisions when it comes to upholding their right to remain silence in the wake of police arrest and their competence to stand trial. Studies has confirmed the fact that age an IQ level of juveniles is related to juveniles’ ability to comprehend Mirada rights (Goldstein, Condie, Kalbeitzer, Osman, & Geier, 2003).Grisso (1997) also noted that juveniles’ limited understanding of legal terminologies leads to increased risk of waiving their Miranda rights. Ferguson, Jimenez and Jackson further reviewed articles on cognitive and psychological abilities in juvenile citing the MacArthur Foundation Research Network on Adolescent Development and Juvenile Justice. The foundation’s study indicated that adolescents and adult differed significantly in psychosocial abilities.The most important result of this research work which symbolized a compilation of findings from literature reviewed on competency to stand trial and vulnerability to false confession which is of immense value to the police setting is the finding by Kassin and Norwick (2004) which indicated that innocent individuals were more likely to waive their Miranda rights than guilty individuals because of their faith in the legal system. Another important finding was gotten from the review ofViljoen, Klaver and Roesch (2005) study which revealed that defendants aged between 11 to 17 years, older ones remained silent while younger ones were more likely to confess. This was in consonant with Redlich and Goodman (2003) who assessed false confession between 3 age groups: 12 to 13, 15 to 16 and 18 to 26. the 12 to 1 age group were more prone to false confession. Older juveniles were however more prone to false confession when presented with â€Å"evidence. † Overall, the research found juveniles between the age of 12 and 16 were practically vulnerable to false confessions.The various results reported is of immense value in police settings. The police using the results of this research must pay particular attention to defendants who refuse to waive their Miranda rights because as Kassin And Norwick (2004) study has revealed, innocent defendants are quick to waive their Miranda rights. However, care must be taken by police to find out the waiving of rights by defendants is due to psychological immaturity on account of age of the defendant (Goldstein et al. , 2003) or is due to the defendants’ lack of understanding of legal terminologies (Grisso, 1997).The results of this research also revealed that juveniles between the age of 16 to 18 may give false confession when presented with â€Å"evidence. † The police must explore other ways of interrogating juveniles to obtain reliable an d correct information other than presenting false evidence which influences juveniles negatively thereby leading them to make false confession. Knowledge gleaned from Eckhardt, Norland, and Bradley(2004) study is that sometimes, offenders’ maladaptive behavior is specific to the individual characteristic of the perpetrator.Forensic psychology professionals working in police setting must understand juveniles on account of their age lacks the capacity to understand legal terminologies which may be one of the reasons they more readily waive their Miranda rights (Grisso, 1997). Forensic Psychology Professionals in police settings must therefore work with juveniles with the understanding that their stage of psychosocial development is below that of the adults. REFERENCES Eckhardt, C. , & Norlander, B. (2004). Anger Hostility and Male Perpetrators of In- Timate Partner Violence: A Meta-Analytic Review. Clinical Psychology Rev- Iew 25, 119-152Ferguson, A. C. , Jimenez, M. M. & Jacks on, R. L. (2010) Juvenile False Confessio- ns and Competency to Stand Trial: Implication for Policy Reformation and Research. The New School Psychology, 7 (1) Goldstein, N. E. , Condie, L. O. , Kalbeitzer, R. , Osman, D. & Geier, J. L. (2003). Juvenile Offenders’ Miranda Rights Comprehension and Self-Reported Likelihood of Offering False Confession. Assessment 10 (4): 359-369. Grisso, T. (1997). The Competence of Adolescents as trial defendants. Psycholo- Gy Public Policy and Law, 3 (1) 3-32. retrieved from http://www. apa. org/ Pubs/journals/law/ Kassin, S. M. & Norwick, R. J. (2004).Why People Waive ther Miranda Rights: The Power of Innocence. Law and Human behavior, 28 (2), 211-221. Ret- Rieved from http://www. springer. com/psychology/law+&+psychology/ Journal/10979 Redlich, A. D & Goodman, G. S. (2003). Taking Responsibility for an act not Committed: The Influence of Age and Suggestibility. Law and human Beh- Avior, 27 (2),141-156 DOI: 10. 1023/A:1022543012851 Viljeon, J . L. & Roesch, R. (2005). Competence to Waive Interrogation Interroga- Tion Rights and Adjudicative Competence in Adolescents Defendants: Co- Genitive Development , Attorney Contact, and Psychological Symptoms. Law and Human Behavior, 29(6):723-743

Nat Turner Researched Essay (with Citations)

Nat Turner English 10 5 March 2012 There comes a time when everyone has to choose what they want to do with their lives, and few have done what Nat Turner has. He led a rebellion against his slave owner and opened the door for other slaves to begin their own fight for freedom. He was born a slave October 2nd, 1800 to Southampton County Virginian Benjamin Turner (â€Å"Nat Turner†). Turner was born into slavery by the slave of a refugee from the Saint Domigue revolt and raised on the plantation of Benjamin Turner.Benjamin Turner was one of the few slave owners that allowed Turner an education in reading, writing and religion – although he taught himself to read after being given a book (â€Å"Nat Turner Biography†). Nat Turner was a very advanced child, people around him at the time of his childhood said he knew the details of many events that occurred before his birth. He also had visions from a young age, and those he believed always led him to his great purpose . These visions led him to many different plantations and slave-masters in the attempt to find that calling (â€Å"Nat Turner Biography†).After his early education Turner was sent to various plantations like that of Benjamin Turners son, Samuel. He worked at each for several years, during one period he was the slave of a nine year-old boy whose father had just died until his mother remarried. He viewed his visions as a gift from God and learned to become a preacher in adulthood, while still working as a slave (â€Å"Nat Turner: A Troublesome Property†). At his fourth and final plantation Turner would start receiving visions of creating an uprising to free him and his fellow slaves.He gathered followers and planned out the entire rebellion, believing it to be for the greater good of all black slaves. But a just day before he could instigate the rebellion Turner got sick and the rebellion was held off until he was well enough to lead and fight (â€Å"Nat Turner: A Troub lesome Property†). It would take a short period of time for Turner to get better before he had another ‘god vision' telling him when the time would be right for an uprising.That time came in the form of a solar eclipse which Turner interpreted to mean it was time. He led forty men through several Virginia towns, killing at least 50 people. But Nat's plan had been found out by whites who arrived to capture his small troupe. Turner successfully hid from the men until October 30, when he was captured and sent to the county jail. His â€Å"confession† was given to Thomas R. Gray before being sentenced to death by hanging (â€Å"Nat Tuner: A Troublesome Property†).Nat Turner is remembered in the South as being one of the first and most important rebels in history for this act of rebellion. Nat had one of the largest amounts of killings by slaves in his time, and he also is memorable for his openness about it. He was quoted in his confession as saying: â€Å"I s ee sir, you doubt my word; but can you not think the same ideas, and strange appearances about this time in the heavens might prompt others, as well as myself, to this undertaking. â€Å"(â€Å"Insurrection of Nat Turner, The†). Confessions of Nat Turner (1831). † Encyclopedia Virginia. Virginia Foundation for the Humanities. 24 Nov 2008. 7 Feb 2012. â€Å"Confessions of Nat Turner, The. † Wake Forest University. Web. 8 Feb. 2012. â€Å"Nat Turner. † International Encyclopedia of the Social Sciences. 2008. Encylopedia. com. 7 Feb. 2012. â€Å"Nat Turner: A Troublesome Property. † PBS: Public Broadcasting Service. PBS. 2012. Web. 7 Feb. 2012. â€Å"Nat Turner Biography. † Biography. com. A&E Television Network, LLC. 1996-2012. Web. 7 Feb. 2012.

Canadian Political Science Research Essay Proposal

Canadian Political Science Research Essay Proposal Free Online Research Papers Canadian Political Science Research Essay Proposal How is it possible that society can protect the innocent, while at the same time protect the rights of the individual? How can society protect the innocent, while at the same time, protect the rights of individuals? Recently Canada was divided over the Supreme Court ruling that it wasn’t illegal to possess child pornography in the province of British Columbia. The decision outraged child rights groups, activists and parents across the country. They have condoned the right to posses such offensive materials, while at the same time included two clauses that seem to have been thrown in on a whim to keep the rest of the country happy with their decision. Outline Cover the definition of obscenity/pornography laws in Canada Cover the definition of individual rights in the constitution Touch on why the innocent should be protected Touch on why child pornography is wrong Try to write a balanced argument showing both sides of each issue The decision affects the Criminal Code of Canada, even though it only applies to the province of British Columbia, many are in fear that this decision may act as a foundation for other similar cases in all the provinces. How is it that the possession of child pornography is legal, while the selling and distributing it is illegal? Some pedophiles, such as David Jones, may use this excuse to hide behind what seems to be a sick fixation. He states that, â€Å"This court decision helps protect regular internet users from the potential nightmare of getting tangled up in a messy kiddie-porn criminal case, just because someone sent you some raunchy images by email or you accidentally visited a disgusting website and either way, some kiddie porn images may have unintentionally ended up on your hard drive.† As you can see there are many arguments to both sides of the issue, some valid, some completely incomprehensible. I hope to present each side equally, and draw a logical conclusion, not one based on emotion, or what one may consider right. Websites vachss.com/help_text/child_porn.html efc.ca/pages/media/wired-news.19jan99.html citizenimpact.ca/pedophile_charter.html cisc.gc.ca/AnnualReport2001/Cisc2001/exploit2001.html interpol.int/Public/Children/SexualAbuse/NationalLaws/csaCanada.asp Articles MacLeans July 12, 1999, Vol 112, Issue 28 pg 19 Research Papers on Canadian Political Science Research Essay ProposalQuebec and CanadaThe Effects of Illegal ImmigrationCapital PunishmentPETSTEL analysis of IndiaEffects of Television Violence on ChildrenComparison: Letter from Birmingham and CritoRelationship between Media Coverage and Social andNever Been Kicked Out of a Place This NiceThe Relationship Between Delinquency and Drug UsePersonal Experience with Teen Pregnancy

Anxiety and anti-anxiety drugs

Anxiety and anti-anxiety drugs In order to understand what exactly anti-anxiety drugs are, and their uses, we need to know what is anxiety and anxiety disorders are. Anxiety includes in a normal human emotion that everyone experiences at times in their life. The word anxiety is a ‘Latin’ word. People when face a problem like before taking a test, or making an important decision, they show anxiety or nervousness. It is a normal reaction against stressful conditions. Anxiety is an unpleasant feeling of dread, which does not control easily. People experience anxiety in three ways: 1. generalized anxiety disorder (GAD) 2. panic attacks 3. phobias GAD: People with GAD show worrying, nervousness and tension. This is towards any particular situation but is connected to your whole life. Panic attacks: These are the extreme attacks of anxiety that comes in an unpredictable way and last for 10minutes.people going through these attacks having difficulty in breathing and behave in an uncontrolled way. Phobias: These are the feeling of fear towards a current particular situation or thing. Although the situation or that thing is not dangerous to them but they behave so anxiously and nervously about that. It may include social phobia-fear to go on social events or to meet people, animal phobia-fear from animals etc. There is difference between anxiety and fear. They are actually are two common and a different phenomenon that are misunderstood as same thing. Fear is a feeling of uneasiness and being threaten on current situation, but on the other hand Anxiety leads towards feeling of threat, intense nervousness, and uneasiness for future situations. Anxiety and fear are not always harmful but in some situations they are quite healthy, beneficial and necessary for our survival. Anxiety disorder is different. They can cause such distress that it interferes with a person’s ability to lead a normal life. An anxiety disorder is a serious mental illness. For people with anxiety disorders, worry and fear are constant and overwhelming, and can be crippling. Anxiety disorders can be defined as, ‘Constant feeling of threat for future events when there is no need to feel threaten that ultimately make you unable and incapable for normal functioning.’ Severe anxiety that lasts up to six months is considered as abnormality and thus categorized as Anxiety disorder. Anxiety becomes a disorder when the symptoms become chronic and interfere with our daily lives and our ability to function. The reason behind this could be the family history of that person or gene or it could be certain trauma from which that person is suffering. For e.g., it is seen in many people with depression have panic attacks at some point. Some people who are anxious have Obsessive Compulsive Disorder OCD. Anxiety is not always distressful but it can help you stay alert and focused, spur you to action, and motivate you to solve problems. But when anxiety is constant or overwhelming, when it interferes with your relationships and activities, it stops being functional’that’s when you’ve crossed the line from normal, productive anxiety into the territory of anxiety disorders. In addition, studies have shown that anxiety disorders run in families, which means that they can at least partly be inherited from one or both parents, like the risk for heart disease or cancer. Moreover, certain environmental factors such as a trauma or significant event may trigger an anxiety disorder in people who have an inherited susceptibility to developing the disorder. ANTI ANXIETY DRUGS: Anti-anxiety drugs are the set of medications that are made to treat anxiety disorder and relieve the patient from the feelings of tension, nervousness and discomfort by regulating heart rate and normalize breathing. When a person is suffering from anxiety disorder, Anti-anxiety drugs are recommended, but these drugs should be taken under the administration of doctor, because they have serious side effects which cannot be ignored. If symptoms of an anxiety disorder are present, the doctor will begin an evaluation by asking you questions about your medical history and performing a physical exam. Although there are no lab tests to specifically diagnose anxiety disorders, the doctor may use various tests to look for physical illness as the cause of the symptoms. If no physical illness is found, you may be referred to a psychiatrist, psychologist, or another mental health professional that is specially trained to diagnose and treat mental illnesses. Psychiatrists and psychologists use specially designed interview and assessment tools to evaluate a person for an anxiety disorder. Anti-Anxiety Drugs include: – Benzodiazepines (BZDs): diazepam, Chlordiazepoxide, Oxazepam, Lorazepam, Alprazolam, Clonazepam, Flurazepam. – Azapirones: Buspione, Gepirone, Ispapirone. – Sedative: Hydroxyzine. – Barbiturates: Amobarbital, Pentobarbital, Phenobarbital, Thiopental. – Beta blocker: Propranolol. – Antidepressants. These medicines are helpful in reducing the symptoms of anxiety disorders include anti-depressants and anxiety-reducing drugs. Like, In panic attacks: it helps in to enhance the patient motivation and accelerate progress toward facing panic and all of its repercussions. Those drugs which are helpful in these area must be helpful in one of the two stages of panic. The first stage is anticipatory anxiety: all the uncomfortable physical symptoms and negative thoughts that rise up as you anticipate facing panic. The second stage is the symptoms of the panic attack itself. In general anxiety: medications help reduce some of the symptoms of anxiety. In phobias: medications can help to reduce the tensions associated with entering the fearful situation. Certain therapies are also used to treat anxiety disorder like: Psychotherapy: Psychotherapy (a type of counseling) addresses the emotional response to mental illness. It is a process in which trained mental health professionals help people by talking through strategies for understanding and dealing with their disorder. Cognitive-behavioral therapy: This is a particular type of psychotherapy in which the person learns to recognize and change thought patterns and behaviors that lead to troublesome feelings. Dietary and lifestyle changes And Relaxation therapy. †¦

The Traditional Media Industries in Transition Essay

The Traditional Media Industries in Transition - Essay Example In addition, digital era has led to the emergence of the Internet, which has made it possible for people to shop online without necessarily travelling to the shop. These are just but a few things that digital convergence has brought in the world today. This paper will explore the impacts of digital convergence and new media on the traditional NBC television network company. The paper will also analyze how NBC is changing the way it produces, distribute and exhibit its media products and re-inventing themselves to the media audience. Certainly, the rise of digital media platform in the recent past has put the traditional media industries in turmoil. This is because of the impacts that digital convergence and new media have had on the traditional media industry. The changes brought about by the digital convergence have caused a lot of unrest within the media sector, which has had to change their strategies in order to remain relevant in the industry. The major competing media sectors i nclude newspaper publishers, radio, and TV broadcast, film, and video industries (Miralles, 2009). Traditional television broadcast companies are among the worst affected in this digital era (Dandawate, 2010). This is because digital convergence has changed a lot in the television sectors. ... This is because digital signals portray quality pictures that can be seen with clarity, unlike the analogue signals that are not very clear (Zerdick et al., 2000). As a result, NBC had to change to the digital signal in order to attract more audiences to the channel. Digital signals also eliminated the use of external aerials, which were being used to tap signals, something that many audiences have lauded about the digital signal. One of the major contributions of the digital convergence that affects traditional television industries is the emergence of Digital Video Recorders (DVR). Reports indicate that the DVR usage in the U.S. is growing very fast. In this regard, a study shows that about 38.1% of U.S. home currently has the DVR (von Rimscha, 2007). However, its impact on the Television industries has been worrying. This is because traditional television companies like NBC used to depend heavily on TV advertising as a source of revenue (von Rimscha, 2007). Nevertheless, with the emergence of DVR kit, a majority of DVR users are skipping TV commercials. This is because the garget allows them users to follow commercial adverts on the garget. The reduction in the number of commercial viewers is thus reducing the value of TV commercials thereby reducing revenue. For instance, NBC reports that many of its commercial TV advertisers have reduced significantly since the emergence of DVR kit. The digital revolution has also contributed to the emergence of the Internet, which is today been used by many as a communication channel (Dandawate, 2010). In fact, report indicates that many Americans today have access to the interment either through their Internet-enabled phones

Sufism Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Sufism - Essay Example It is most of the time the basic understanding of Sufis that each situation is an element and the will of God and at the same time the developing of bad feelings as to why it happened is not correct. The main objective of all Sufis therefore is to prevent the entry of all negative attitudes brought about by worldly temptations, including a belief of personal identity, and to value and respect the existence of God (Qushayri 5). Sufis teach in individual set-ups, as the student of the leader is characterized as essential for the development of the student. They make wide utilization of stories, parables, and poetry, and it is stated by Sufis that implications can only be attained through a procedure of searching what is right, and learning of the personal identity. Even though concepts and theories differ among various Sufi sects, Sufism in its entirety is initially concerned with direct individual experience, and as such may be considered similar to different types of religious sects like Buddhism and Christianity (Ernst 6). The founders of different Sufi principles most of the time utilized symbolical language which was hard to be decoded by an ordinary individual to understand these principles (Shah 5). This utilization of symbolical and hard to understand language and the presence of various implications by individuals who possessed inadequate knowledge in Muslim teachings or Sufism itself result to the rejections and disapprovals being cast over the authenticity of Sufism as a component of Muslim tradition. In addition, some sects arose that categorized themselves above Allah and portrayed Sufism as a process of intervening the principles of Islam in order to be saved immediately. This was rejected by modern experts. B. Sufi leaders have established various specific chants and activities into their teaching grounds (Lings 6). The symbolical and often absurd language utilized by Sufis in their teachings when deciphered by ignorant individuals opens channels for various misinterpretations and chaos. Conclusion While Sufism has evidently caused widespread rejections and disapprovals among experts and religious sects all over the world especially the Muslims, Sufism still has the right to exist as an independent body of knowledge no matter how chaotic or confusing their teachings may be. Perhaps, the only time Muslim governments should intervene with stopping Sufism is when there is a clear and serious violation of the rule of God and therefore Sufis must be held accountable. But until that situation happens, there is no valid reason why Sufism must be eradicated from this world. After all, their teachings all point to worshipping God as the Savior and Creator. Utmost respect must still be

Re-engineering mngement Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Re-engineering mngement - Essay Example The city reengineered the process. Now, deprtments re given responsibility to mke ll smll purchses. Ech deprtment hs been issued bnk credit crd nd n pproved list of vendors. For ll purchses under $1,000 with these vendors, there re no requisition forms, no purchse orders, no sign-offs or hnd-offs. Stff members re ble to buy wht they need, when they need it, t competitive cost. Ech month, the bnk sends the finnce deprtment tpe of ll city trnsctions, llowing the city to reconcile purchses ginst its own generl ledger system. The result: purchses re mde promptly, equipment does not sit idle for lck of smll prts, nd the city estimtes tht it is sving thousnds of dollrs. The svings in stff time cn not even be clculted. Unfortuntely, reengineering enthusists cn be guilty of over-promising. The fct is, process reengineering is not for everyone. In mtters of policy, public involvement, nd politics, there lwys will be need for extensive consulttion nd meetings. If you stremline those processes too much, the public my perceive tht it is being left out. lso, when n orgniztion is going through crisis, BPR nd other innovtions re inpproprite, even though the crisis my force people to tke fresh look t how they do business once the crisis is over.

The Music Of World War Two Music Essay

The Music Of World War Two Music Essay From Wilhelm Richard Wagner to Irving Berlin, the music of World War II was used on both sides of the conflict to gain support at home and give a feeling of patriotism and boost morale. Interestingly, it was also used as a vehicle to express a vision of government, to attract the enemy troops to propaganda, and encourage the home troops as well. Looking at the music of this time provides insight into the attitudes and cultural tone of the political leaders to all different levels of society Adolf was a fanatical admirer of Wagner since his teens. His passion for Wagner knew no bounds and a performance was almost like a religious experience to the young Adolph. Adolph was carried away by Wagners powerful musical dramas, the evocation of a heroic, sublimely and distant mystical Germanic past. Adolphs first and favorite Wagner opera was Lohengrin, which is the saga of a knight of the grail, the epitome of the Teutonic hero, who was sent from the castle of Monsalvat by his father Parzival to rescue Elsa who had been wrongly condemned, but ended up betraying her. Adolphs philosophy was built upon the works of Wagner which can be seen in his statement These criminals who wanted do away with me have no idea what would happen to the German people, they dont know the plans of our enemies, who want to annihilate Germany so that it never can rise again. If they think that the western powers are strong enough without Germany to hold Bolshevism in check, they are deceiving themselvesà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ I am the only one who knows the danger, and the only one who can prevent it. The author Ian Kershaw sums up Adolphs statement Such sentiments were redolent, through a distorting mirror, of the Wagnerian redeemer-figure, a hero who alone could save the holders of the Grail, indeed the world itself from disaster a latter-day Parsifal. (page 851). German Songs Due to Hitlers fascinating with Wagner and especially the Germanic culture that Wagner promoted, the Nazis took a strong interest in promoting the music and culture of their remote ancestors through the use of radio and at the same time promote their propaganda. As with most dictatorial governments the Nazis had an obsession with controlling and promoting the culture of the people and as a result the common peoples taste in music was kept secret but many Germans were able to use their radios to listen to Jazz which was hated by Hitler but loved by the world. Soldiers in the German army were expected to learn a repertoire of marching songs and traditional songs that they could perform on demand. (Les Cleveland page 8) One of the most popular songs of World War Two was Lili Marlene which was popular with both the German and British forces. Based on the German poem Das Mà ¤dchen unter der Laterne which was set to music in 1938. The song was recorded in both German and English versions. Due to the popularity of the song it was used throughout the war not only as a popular song, but a propaganda tool. The best understanding of German Music from World War Two has to come from official Nazi government policy. Regrettably as the losers in the war Nazi Songs and German Music from this time period has not been assigned the high heroic status has have British and American popular music of this time period. British Songs 1. I Havent Seen Old Hitler A song from the closing period of the war, still alive in the oral tradition. 2.  The D-Day Dodgers It was widely believed that Lady Astor, MP, had referred to troops in Itaiy as D-Day dodgers because they missed the 1944 landings in Normandy. In fact, these men had seen some of the ugliest fighting in the war. This song a riposte from the front became a forces favourite. The original appears to have been written by Lance-Sergeant Harry Pynn of the Tank Rescue Section, 19 Army Fire Brigade, but the lyrics underwent many variations. This version was collected by Denis Healey when a sapper with the 8th Army in Italy. 3.  Ode to a Gezira Lovely Gezira, an island in the Nile, possessed a sports club much frequented by Allied officers in North Africa. A version of this ode appears in an Imperial War Museum document, Army Songs, compiled by the Intelligence Corps at 8th Army HQ in Italy, 1944. 4.  Tins The humble petrol tin was adapted for many domestic necessities in wartime. This tribute originated among coastal command squadrons stationed in Iceland from 1941. From Ward-Jacksons Airmans Song Book. 5.  The Ballad of Wadi Maktilla A song collected in 1940 by Hamish Henderson, an intelligence officer who served with the 51st Highland Division. The song commemorates a somewhat abortive raid by the 2nd Camerons on an Italian outpost about 12 miles east of Sidi Barrani. From Roy Palmer. 6.  The Dying Soldier A stark narrative set at Kohima on the Indo-Burmese border, to the tune of the Red River Valley. From Roy Palmer. 7.   Service Police Song A parody sung to the tune of Offenbachs Gendarmes Duet. Written for an RAF station concert party. From Ward-Jackson. 8.  Kiss Me Goodnight, Sergeant-Major A hit song written in 1939 by Art Noel and Don Pelosi. Though a product of Tin Pan Alley, it displays a subversive humour that places it firmly in the low concert tradition. Note the comb-and-toilet paper chorus. 9.  Thanks for the Memory Wartime parody from the collection of Roy Palmer. The 1937 hit, written by Leo Robin and Ralph Rainger, was much adapted in World War Two. WAAF officers on a Gas Course in 1941 sang of the respirator drill, which shook but did not kill Pathetic it was. 10.  Come on Chaps One of many similar ribaldries current in World War Two. All shared the same formula: the rhyme calls for an obscenity which is never in fact voiced. (Army Songs) 11.  The Firth of Forth A song marvellously browned off in mood, which was sung with many variants by RAF squadrons in World War Two. The targets in the last verse are the Ops Room twots personnel in Operations Room, Headquarters. 12.   Down the Mine A deeply affecting song written by Arthur Smith of Leven, Fife, who was one of many British POWs held by the Japanese at Kinkaseki, Formosa (now Taiwan). Inmates were made to work in a copper mine. The bunsho dono was the camp commander; a chunkle was a pick. From Roy Palmer. 13.  The Sailors Wife World War Two version of a popular Royal Navy song which is 19th-century or earlier in origin. 14.  Longmoor One of many wartime parodies of The Mountains of Mourne. Longmoor Camp is in Hampshire; a similar song targeted Carlisle. 15. I Dont Want to Join the Army (medley) The song a soldiers favourite in both world wars leads into a medley of barrack-room verses. Fred Karno was a comedian noted for his ineptitude; the RSC was the Royal Service Corps. The lyric Ive Been in the Saddle, originally sung by the cavalry regiments, was also relished by WW2 infantrymen. This track is not for the fainthearted. 16.   Bloody Orkney Crushing boredom in an out-of-the-way garrison town. The original, about Orkney, was written by Captain Hamish Blair but many variants were devised. Denis Healey knew it as Sheffield in the Blitz. Airmen sang of Bloody Shrimpton-Bassett. 17.  We Are the Boys Collected by Dave Townsend from the singing of Ron East of Weston-on-the-Green in Oxfordshire. 18.   Africa Star A soldierly disrespect for campaign medals is exhibited in this song which, like the D-Day Dodgers, takes a sideswipe at Lady Astor. From Roy Palmer. 19.  The Sinking of the Graf Spee Song celebrating the sinking of a German pocket battleship by three British cruisers in December 1939. Roy Palmer recalls a Dick Bamber of Tandragee, who remembered singing this song in pubs during the war and not having to buy a drink because of it. 20.  My Bomber Lies over the Ocean A pretty little bomber song sung by 175 and other squadrons from 1942 (Ward-Jackson). 21.  When this Bloody War is Over A World War One song still widespread in World War Two. The hymn tune is What a Friend We Have in Jesus. 22.  The Gay Caballero A bawdy tale very popular with wartime sevicemen. Versions appear in Roy Palmer and in Army Songs. 23.  Onward 15 Army Group Morale in Italy declined late in the war as fighting dragged on and, one after another, Allied commanders left for other theatres. General Mark Clark was an American who took charge of 15 Army Group. This piece, collected by Denis Healey, is also found in Army Songs. 24.The Highland Divisions Farewell to Sicily A composition by Hamish Henderson one of the finest songs of World War Two. The dialect does not obscure its mood of haunting regret for the puir bliddy bastards, weary of war, who rest at the waterside. The tune is Farewell to the Creeks, a Gordon pipe march. 25. Bless em All This song was current in the forces long before 1940 when Jimmy Hughes and Frank Lake copyrighted an arrangement of it. Bless em All was the title of their wartime hit. Servicemen used a different verb so do we. American Songs During the war, many people in the US and Great Britain found an escape by listening to the radio. Hit songs were a nice form of catharsis for the public; the lyrics were often about situations the average person could relate to, and it helped the listeners to feel that they were not alone. So, naturally, songwriters wanted to provide music that would be uplifting, encouraging, and of course, patriotic. American Songs Ac-cent-tchu-ate The Positive Composer: Johnny Mercer and Harold Arlen  ©1944 The music was written by Harold Arlen and the lyrics by Johnny Mercer, and it was published in 1944. It is sung in the style of a sermon, and explains that accentuating the positive is key to happiness. In describing his inspiration for the lyric, Mercer told the Pop Chronicles radio documentary I went to hear Father Divine and he had a sermon and his subject was you got to accentuate the positive and eliminate the negative. And I said Wow, thats a colorful phrase!'[1]HYPERLINK #cite_note-1[2] Be Careful, Its My Heart Composer: Irving Berlin From: Movie Holiday Inn  ©1942 The Anniversary Waltz Composer: Al Dubin and Dave Franklin  ©1941 Boogie Woogie Bugle Boy Composer: Don Raye and Hughie Prince  ©1940 The song was written by Don Raye and Hughie Prince, and was recorded at Deccas Hollywood studios on January 2, 1941, nearly a year before the United States entered World War II but after the start of a peacetime draft to expand the armed forces in anticipation of American involvement. The flipside was Bounce Me Brother With a Solid Four. The Andrews Sisters introduced the song in the 1941 Abbott and Costello film Buck Privates, which was in production when they made the record. Boogie Woogie Bugle Boy was nominated for an Academy Award for Best Song. It is closely based on an earlier Raye-Prince hit, Beat Me Daddy, Eight to the Bar, which is about a virtuoso boogie-woogie piano player. Storyline of the song According to the lyrics of the song, a renowned Illinois street musician is drafted into the U.S. Army during the Wartime Draft imposed by the Roosevelt Administration. In addition to being famous, the bugler was the top man at his craft, but the Army had little use for his talents and he was reduced to blowing the wake up call (Reveille) in the morning. This caused the musician to become dejected: It really brought him down, because he couldnt jam. The commanding officer took note of the blues mans blues and went out and conscripted more musicians to assemble a band to keep the bugler company. Thereafter, the bugler found his stride, infusing the military marches with his inimitable street flair: He blows it eight to the bar in boogie rhythm. Even his morning calls attain some additional flavor: And now the company jumps when he plays reveille. But, the bugler is not only empowered, he is possibly spoiled, because thereafter, He cant blow a note if the bass and guitar/Isnt with him . Do Nothin Till You Hear From Me Composer: Bob Russell and Duke Ellington  ©1943 Dont Get Around Much Anymore Composer: Bob Russell and Duke Ellington  ©1942 Dont Sit Under The Apple Tree (With Anyone Else But Me) Composer: Lew Brown, Sam. H. Stept, and Charlie Tobias  ©1942 Evry Time We Say Goodbye Composer: Cole Porter From: Musical Seven Lively Arts  ©1944 Have I Stayed Away Too Long Composer: Frank Loesser  ©1943 The Fleets In Composer: Johnny Mercer and Victor Schertzinger From: Movie The Fleets In  ©1942 I Came Here To Talk For Joe Composer: Lew Brown, Charlie Tobias, and Sam Stept  ©1942 I Dont Want To Set The World On Fire Composer: Sol Marcus, Bennie Benjamin, and Eddie Seiler  ©1941 I Dont Want To Walk Without You Composer: Frank Loesser and Jule Styne From: Movie Sweater Girl  ©1941 Ill Be Seeing You Composer: Irving Kahal and Sammy Fain From: Musical Right This Way  ©1938 Ill Be Home For Christmas Composer: Kim Gannon and Walter Kent  ©1943 Ill Get By (As Long As I Have You) Composer: Roy Turk and Fred A. Ahlert  ©1928 Ill Never Smile Again Composer: Ruth Lowe  ©1939 Ill Walk Alone Composer: Sammy Cahn and Jule Styne From: Movie Follow The Boys  ©1944 Im Beginning To See The Light Composer: Don George, Johnny Hodges, Duke Ellington, and Harry James  ©1944 In The Blue Of Evening Composer: Tom Adair and DArtega  ©1942 Is You Is, Or Is You Aint (Ma Baby) Composer: Billy Austin and Louis Jordan From: Movie Follow The Boys  ©1943 Juke Box Saturday Night Composer: Al Stillman and Paul McGrane  ©1942 Its Been A Long, Long Time Composer: Sammy Cahn and Jule Styne  ©1945 Kiss The Boys Goodbye Composer: Frank Loesser and Victor Schertzinger From: Movie Kiss The Boys Goodbye  ©1941 The Last Time I Saw Paris Composer: Oscar Hammerstein II and Jerome Kern From: Movie Lady, Be Good  ©1940 Long Ago (And Far Away) Composer: Ira Gershwin and Jerome Kern From: Musical Cover Girl  ©1944 Love Letters Composer: Edward Heyman and Victor Young From: Movie Love Letters  ©1945 Moonlight Becomes You Composer: Johnny Burke and James Van Heusen From: Movie Road To Morocco  ©1942 Moonlight In Vermont Composer: John Blackburn and Karl Suessdorf  ©1944 My Shining Hour Composer: Johnny Mercer and Harold Arlen From: Movie The Skys The Limit  ©1943 A Nightingale Sang In Berkeley Square Composer: Eric Maschwitz and Manning Sherwin  ©1940 One For My Baby (And One More For The Road) Composer: Johnny Mercer and Harold Arlen From: Movie The Skys The Limit  ©1943 Praise The Lord And Pass The Ammunition! Composer: Frank Loesser  ©1942 Saturday Night Is The Loneliest Night Of The Week Composer: Sammy Cahn and Jule Styne  ©1944 Seems Like Old Times Composer: John Jacob Loeb and Carmen Lombardo  ©1946 Sentimental Journey Composer: Bud Green, Les Brown, and Ben Homer  ©1944 Somebody Else Is Taking My Place Composer: Dick Howard, Bob Ellsworth, and Russ Morgan  ©1937 Spring Will Be A Little Late This Year Composer: Frank Loesser From: Movie Christmas Holiday  ©1943 A String Of Pearls Composer: Eddie DeLange and Jerry Gray  ©1941 That Old Black Magic Composer: Johnny Mercer and Harold Arlen From: Movie Star Spangled Rhythm  ©1942 Theres A Star Spangled Banner Waving Somewhere Composer: Paul Roberts and Shelby Darnell  ©1942 Theyre Either Too Young Or Too Old Composer: Frank Loesser and Arthur Schwartz  ©1943 When The Lights Go On Again (All Over The World) Composer: Eddie Seiler, Sol Marcus, and Bennie Benjamin  ©1942 This Is My Country Composer: Don Raye and Al Jacobs  ©1940 What Do You Do In The Infantry Composer: Frank Loesser  ©1943 (Therell Be Bluebirds Over) The White Cliffs Of Dover Composer: Nat Burton and Walter Kent  ©1941 Why Do They Call A Private A Private? Composer: Frank Loesser and Peter Lind Hayes From: Army Special Services Revue About Face  ©1944 You And I Composer: Meredith Willson  ©1941 Youd Be So Nice To Come Home To Composer: Cole Porter From: Musical Something To Shout About  ©1942 Youll Never Know Composer: Mack Gordon and Harry Warren  ©1943

Boston Massacre Essay -- essays research papers

The Boston Massacre is considered by many historians to be the first battle of the Revolutionary War. The fatal incident happened on March 5 of 1770. The massacre resulted in the death of five colonists. British troops in the Massachusetts Bay Colony were there to stop demonstrations against the Townshend Acts and keep order, but instead they provoked outrage. The British soldiers and citizens brawled in streets and fought in bars. “The citizens viewed the British soldiers as potential oppressors, competitors for jobs, and a treat to social mores'; (Mahin 1). A defiant anti-British fever was lingering among the townspeople.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   There are three major things that led to the Boston Massacre: First was the growing mistrust among the British soldiers and Americans. There were a number of other incidents were the British clashed with the patriots and their supporters. Individual soldiers were beaten on street corners and soldiers abused unarmed civilians. In all the Americans in Boston made it clear that the British soldiers were unwanted.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The second reason is somewhat odd. The removal of two out of four regiments meant there were to inadequate amounts of soldiers to keep the peace. There were enough on the other hand to remind the patriots of the great British military.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The last reason would be the revolt of the Townshend Acts. The patriots and Americans did not agree and strife with the British soldiers over it. The Act built tension between the two. (Griswold 23) On March 5, 1770 the dreadful day came. A mob of people went in front of the Customs Office in Boston Massachusetts and started to throw stuff and give insults at the soldiers. As a result to this so-called harassment the soldiers fired on the crowd. The first to die was a black man named Crispus Attucks. He was a native of Frainghan, Massachusetts. He escaped from slavery in 1750 and had become a sailor. Crispus Attucks is considered the first martyr of the American Independence (Mahin 1). The four others who died were Samuel gray, a rope maker; James Caldwell, a sailor; Samuel Maverick, a seventeen year old apprentice and Patrick Carr, a leather worker and Irish immigrant. All in which were unarmed and brutally murdered. The soldiers killed three, mortally wounded two others, and wounded six. How much ha... ...at were stationed in Boston were guilty for many other crimes. I think either the soldiers should have been guilty for firing without an order or that Preston should have been guilty for giving the order to fire. According to Liesenfelt, the eight men said they were following Preston orders and should be tried at one time (1). So the soldiers are saying they were following orders which means Preston is guilty. Also three black witnesses gave testimony that they did hear an order to fire by Preston. Then again a merchant said he did not hear an order. Either way the soldiers and/or Preston should have been guilty. I think it a lot easier to miss something said than to be hearing things. So the evidence is there that Preston gave an order to fire. I feel the verdict of the trial of the Boston Massacre should have been “guilty';. The victims were unarmed and brutally murdered. I soldier enraged the citizens and were guilty of many other crimes. The order to fire give from Preston proves he’s guilty of the crime of manslaughter. My conclusion is that the soldiers and/or Preston are guilty. “Half a pale of blood had been spilled into he snow'; (Mahin 2).

The Flowering Response of the Rice Plant to Photoperiod

The Flowering Response of the Rice Plant to Photoperiod A REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE FOURTH EDITION 1985 Los Banos, Laguna, Philippines Mail Address: P. O. Box 933, Manila, Philippines THE INTERNATIONAL RICE RESEARCH INSTITUTE First printing 1969 Partially revised 1972 Revised 1976 Revised 1985 The International Rice Research Institute (IRRI) was established in 1960 by the Ford and Rockfeller Foundations with the help and approval of the Government of the Philippines. Today IRRI is one of the 13 nonprofit international research and training centers supported by the Consultative Group for International Agricultural Research (CGIAR). The CGIAR is sponsored by the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) of the United Nations, the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (World Bank), and the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP). The CGIAR consists of 50 donor countries, international and regional organizations, and private foundations. IRRI receives support, through the CGIAR, from a number of donors including: the Asian Development Bank, the European Economic Community, the Ford Foundation, the International Development Research Centre, the International Fund for Agricultural Development, the OPEC Special Fund, the Rockefeller Foundation, the United Nations Development Programme, the World Bank, and the international aid agencies of the following governments: Australia, Canada, China, Denmark, France, Federal Republic of Germany, India, Italy, Japan, Mexico, Netherlands, New Zealand, Norway, Philippines, Saudi Arabia, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, United Kingdom, and United States. The responsibility for this publication rests with the International Rice Research Institute. Copyright @ International Rice Research Institute 1986 All rights reserved. Except for quotations of short passages for the purpose of criticism and review, no part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in retrieval systems, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise, without prior permission of IRRI. This permission will not be unreasonably withheld for use for noncommercial purposes. IRRI does not require payment for the noncommercial use of its published works, and hopes that this copyright declaration will not diminish the bona fide use of its research findings in agricultural research and development. The designations employed and the presentation of the material in this publication do not imply the expression of any opinion whatsoever on the part of IRRI concerning the legal status of any country, territory, city, or area, or of its authorities, or concerning the delimitation of its frontiers or boundaries. ISBN 971-104-151-0 CONTENTS Foreword Introduction 1 Rice as a Short-day Plant 1 Growth Phases 2 Basic Vegetative Phase 4 Photoperiod-Sensitive Phase 5 Photoinductive Cycles 7 Reception of the Photoperiodic Stimulus and Translocation 9 Light Intensity and Quality 9 Interruption of the Dark Period 11 Days from Photoinductive Treatment to Flowering 12 Biochemical Changes During Photoinduction 12 Effect of Temperature on the Flowering Response to Photoperiod 13 Measurements and Methods of Testing Photoperiod Sensitivity 14 Date-of-Planting Experiments 15 Ecology and Photoperiodism 17 Terminology Used in Describing Photoperiod Sensitivity 20 Inheritance of Vegetative Growth Duration 23 Problems in the Study of the Rice Plant? fs Photoperiodism 25 Summary 26 Appendix 28 Bibliography 38 Foreword This review, first published in 1969, has been an important reference in understanding the rice plant. It has had a small but continuing demand. Many new reports on the flowering response of the rice plant have been published since the first edition. More than 100 publications were included in the third edition; this edition includes another 103 publications. For ease of reading, numbers have been used to cite the references. This review was prepared with the cooperation of the IRRI Library Staff and the technical assistance of Mr. Romeo M. Visperas, and edited by Ms. Emerita P. Cervantes. M. S. Swaminathan Director General Introduction Photoperiod influences several aspects of plant growth. Some of its effects on rices have been reviewed by Best (24), Gwinner (111), Katayama (192), Morinaga (316), Sircar (439), and Wagenaar (534). This review is primarily concerned with the effect of photoperiod on the flowering of the rice plant. It includes more than 500 papers on the photoperiodism of rice, most of which are available at the International Rice Research Institute library. Several contributions in Japanese have been translated into English and also are available at the International Rice Research Institute library. A bibliography is given at the end of this review; not all papers listed were cited in this review but were nevertheless included as future references for interested workers. Rice as a short-day plant Rice is sensitive to photoperiod . long-day treatments can prevent or considerably delay its flowering. Rice cultivars exhibit a wide range of variation in their degree of sensitivity to photoperiod (87, 254, 319, 357, 531, 563). Figure 1 shows these variations, ranging from the very sensitive to the nearly insensitive. 1. Response curves of three representative types of rice cultivars. 2 The flowering response of the rice plant to photoperiod Most of the wild species of Oryza and many of the primitive cultivated rices ( O. sativa L. ) are photoperiod sensitive and may be classified as short-day plants. Most papers agree on such a classification, and therefore in this review, rice will be considered as a short-day plant. It also will be classified into photoperiod-sensitive and photoperiod-insensitive types, the latter showing a low response or a slight delay in flowering with an increase in photoperiod. The present tendency is to select photoperiod-insensitive cultivars so that most of the cultivated rices may eventually become photoperiod-insensitive ones. These improved, early maturing cultivars may fit into the multiple cropping system characteristic of progressive agriculture. There have been reports of cultivars whose flowering is delayed by short-day treatments and hence are considered long-day plants (1, 98, 99, 239, 254, 276, 277, 279, 283, 284, 287, 291, 303, 398,443,444, 488). Heenati, for instance, is often referred to in the literature as a long-day plant (1). Short photoperiods have delayed its flowering by 10 d, but this delay is relatively short and may be the result of nonphotoperiodic factors, such as low light intensity or relatively high temperature. The delay caused by short-day treatments ranged from 7 to 12 d in the Charnock and Panbira cultivars using an 8-h photoperiod (443), about 9 d in B. 76 (303), and 13 d in T. N. 32 and T. A. 64 (287). Many of the reported long-day and intermediate cultivars were found to be short-day cultivars in subsequent testing (522). The apparent long-day reaction of Heenati resulted from using photoperiods shorter than the optimum, which delayed flowering (34). Some rices may have been classified as long-day plants because inadequate facilities were used in testing the photoperiod reaction. The range of photoperiods used has been limited, usually involving only two treatments. In some instances, the classification was based on field reaction to different planting dates (98). Short-day-treated plants were often compared with plants grown under natural day lengths (291, 303, 304). The difference and changes in temperature and the photoperiods used have made it difficult to interpret the data intelligently. As will be discussed later, many photoperiod response curves show that photoperiods longer or shorter than the optimum delay the flowering of photoperiod-sensitive cultivars (34, 513). Photoperiod response differs markedly among rices; this also explains the diversity of the results reported on the photoperiodism of the rice plant (see Appendix). However, more than 400 cultivars have been critically tested at IRRI (l59, 160, 161, 162, 163, 164, 166, 167, 168, 169, 170), and not one so far has shown a long-day response. Growth phases The growth of the rice plant can be divided into three stages: 1) the vegetative growth phase, from germination to panicle initiation; 2) the reproductive phase, from panicle initiation to flowering; and 3) the ripening phase, from flowering to full development of grain. In the tropics, the reproductive phase is about 35 d while the ripening phase ranges from 30 to 35 d. Both phases are relatively constant, although low temperatures have been known to prolong them and high The flowering response of the rice plant to photoperiod 3 temperatures to shorten them. The ripening phase may be prolonged to as much as 60 d. However, it is the vegetative growth phase whose duration generally varies greatly and which largely determines the growth duration of a cultivar, especially in the tropics. The vegetative growth phase can be further divided into the basic vegetative phase (BVP) and the photoperiod-sensitive phase (PSP). The BVP refers to the juvenile growth stage of the plant, which is not affected by photoperiod. It is only after the BVP has been completed that the plant is able to show its response to the photoperiodic stimulus for flowering . this is the PSP of the plant. Figure 2 shows the growth phases and the typical response of a photoperiodsensitive rice and a photoperiod-insensitive rice. Based on the BVP and PSP, varietal response to photoperiod can be classified into four types as shown in Figure 3 (105, 526). 2. Growth phases and typical responses of a photoperiod-sensitive rice and a photoperiod-insensitive rice. BVP = basic vegetative phase, PSP = photoperiod-sensitive phase. 3. Four types of varietal response to photoperiod. BVP = basic vegetative phase, PSP = photoperiodsensitive phase. 4 The flowering response of the rice plant to photoperiod The BVP and PSP are two separable growth phases controlled by different genes. Although some tropical cultivars may be classified as the D type having both long BVP and long PSP, most were probably eliminated during domestication since they would have had an unusually long growth period and could be planted only within a narrow range of dates. Such cultivars were found in Bangladesh and are known as Rayadas (105). The four types shown in Figure 3 were classified under one temperature condition. Norin 20 (Type A) has a short BVP. When grown in the tropics, however, it has a much shorter BVP than when grown in the temperate areas (Fig. 1). In classifying cultivars based on BVP, most of those from the low latitudes were found to have long BVP? fs (531, 532). Basic vegetative phase At the early growth stages, the rice plant is photoperiod insensitive so that the photoinductive treatments are usually started when the plants are 10-63 d old (13, 90, 142, 175, 186, 213, 230, 232, 273, 304, 316, 401, 512, 531). Because of this insensitivity to photoperiod, the early growth stage has been termed the basic vegetative phase; it is also referred to as the juvenile growth stage of the insensitive phase of the plant. Suenaga recognized the BVP as early as 1936. He measured it by taking the duration of the vegetative growth phase at optimum day length. The BVP also has been measured by subtracting 35 d from the growth duration (sowing to flowering) of plants grown at the optimum photoperiod (526). This assumes that the period from panicle initiation to flowering is about 35 d. Anema (13) modified the determination of the BVP by subtracting 35 d and the minimum number of photoinductive cycles needed for panicle initiation from the heading date. The resulting BVP values are smaller but this complex method would mean determining the minimum number of photoinductive cycles needed for each cultivar. The range of BVP reported in the literature has varied from 10 to 85 d (105, 175, 266, 273, 326, 381, 383, 401, 407, 445, 512). In an F 2 population, BVP? fs of more than 100 d were reported (249), but a BVP of this length has not been found in conventional rice cultivars. It is possible that such characters are eliminated during cultivar selection. The appendix shows the range of the BVP of the cultivars tested at IRRI. The indica cultivars generally have longer BVP (583). Other workers have reported or measured BVP in terms of leaf number (93, 215, 340, 413, 551, 575). The minimum number of leaves can be less than five. The need for determining the BVP of a rice cultivar before using it as an experimental plant material is obvious but is frequently overlooked especially in the study of the inheritance of photoperiod sensitivity. Several experiments showed that short-day treatments of seedlings accelerated heading (393, 401, 437, 438, 445) or delayed it (16, 273, 284, 287, 296, 426, 443, 447, 551). The results indicate the possible effect of photoperiod while the plant is in its early growth stage and the possible existence of a very short BVP. On the other hand, long-day treatments of seedlings have been reported to induce earliness in flowering (418, 427). These varied and conflicting results may have been caused by nonspecific factors. A good example is seedling vigor, which is The flowering response of the rice plant to photoperiod 5 known to affect the flowering date, especially in the weakly photoperiod-sensitive cultivars. The degree of sensitivity of rice plants has been reported to increase with age (142, 190, 195, 202, 205, 347, 512). The increase in leaf area accompanying advancement in age does not explain this increase in sensitivity (413). An increase in sensitivity with age up to 28 d and then a decrease in sensitivity with older plants (35- to 42-d-old plants) has been reported (296). The delay probably resulted from the setback from delayed transplanting and not from plant age because the plants were already 63 d old when transplanted, with some already flowering. The optimum age of responsiveness is probably the result of growthlimiting factors, such as space and nutrients and delayed transplanting. Katayama (202) indicated that the BVP, or aging effect, probably resulted from small leaf area and (or) low metabolic activity and (or) lack of a specific metabolic pattern in young plants. The substance causing response to short-day conditions is produced in too small a quantity to affect morphogenesis at the growing point, but increases gradually with increasing age. Studying this aspect, Suge (460) found that the growth inhibitors in the plant were greatly reduced as the plant grew. However, it is not known whether these inhibitory substances are essentially involved in the sensitivity of the plant to photoperiod. In some instances, the apparent low sensitivity of the younger plants may be a matter of completing the BVP. If the photoinductive cycles were given before the BVP of the plants had been completed, the effective photoinductive cycles would be less and the resulting response of the plants would be smaller. The transition from the BVP to the PSP is not well known; it could be abrupt or it could involve a gradual buildup. Using several cultivars, Best (26) found that the insensitive phase (BVP) changed to the fully sensitive phase (PSP) within a week. The following are possible explanations for the existence of the BVP (26): 1) The first leaves formed are completely insensitive to photoperiod. 2) The first leaves formed have very low sensitivity that they do not reach an adequate level of induction to evoke floral initiation before the more sensitive leaves formed at higher nodes have reached this stage. ) The first leaves formed do not attain the induced stage before the (early) senescence of these leaves. 4) The total leaf area required before the plant can react by floral initiation to the inductive photoperiod is so large that it is reached only at a relatively late stage of plant development. 5) The growing point of the young plant is unable to react to the floral stimulus or the st imulus cannot reach the growing point. Photoperiod-sensitive phase The PSP or the eliminable phase (186) is the growth stage indicative of the rice plant's sensitivity to photoperiod. In photoperiod-sensitive cultivars, the PSP determines the rice plant? fs sensitivity. The PSP of photoperiod-insensitive cultivars ranges from 0 to 30 d while that of sensitive cultivars lasts from 31 d or longer. Under continually long photoperiods, 6 The flowering response of the rice plant to photoperiod some cultivars have been reported to remain vegetative even after 12 yr of growth (234). The PSP is usually determined by subtracting the minimum growth duration from the maximum growth duration of a cultivar (526). Because many cultivars remain vegetative for a long period if grown under long-day conditions, experiments are usually terminated after 200 d and the PSP of the cultivar is given the value of 200+. Besides measuring the PSP, there are many other ways . to be discussed later . of determining a cultivar? fs sensitivity to photoperiod. A rice cultivar? fs response to photoperiod may be measured by the length of the PSP, which in turn is determined by both the critical and optimum photoperiods of the cultivar. Because these two terms have been used interchangeably and in many ways, the following definitions will be adopted herein. Optimum photoperiod is the day length at which the duration from sowing to flowering is at a minimum (34). Critical photoperiod is the longest photoperiod at which the plant will flower or the photoperiod beyond which it cannot flower. Figure 1 shows that BPI-76 has an optimum photoperiod of 10 h and a critical photoperiod of 13 h. Tainan 3 has an optimum photoperiod of 12 h but no critical photoperiod because it flowered under all photoperiods. The critical photoperiod determines whether a cultivar will flower when planted at the usual time at a certain latitude, while the optimum photoperiod determines whether it will flower within a reasonable time if planted during a period with longer days than would normally occur during the growing season. With BPI-76, if the optimum photoperiod is 10 h and the delay under photoperiods longer than 10 h is great, one would expect the flowering of this cultivar to be greatly delayed when planted in the northern latitudes where the photoperiod during the growing season is about 14 h. If the critical photoperiod is 12 h, flowering will occur very late at high latitudes, and if flowering does occur, the crop will not mature in time because frost will kill it. A cultivar with a long optimum photoperiod or no critical photoperiod would have wider adaptability . it could be planted at any latitude and in any season, provided it is not too sensitive to temperature. Optimum photoperiod The optimum photoperiod differs with cultivars although many workers have observed it to be 8-10 h (39, 116, 135, 142, 311, 362, 371, 393, 512). Using intermediate photoperiods of less than and more than 10 h may reveal more important information. But this will require facilities in which a maximum of 15-min difference in photoperiods can be accurately obtained. There are also indications that the optimum photoperiod increases with increase in temperature Njoku (335) did not find any optimum photoperiod in the varieties he studied. The photoperiod he used was as short as 9 h, well below the range of natural day lengths. Cultivars with optimum photoperiods longer than 10 h have also been reported (26, 90, 320, 322, 362, 568). The less sensitivity to photoperiod, the longer is the (394). The flowering response of the rice plant to photoperiod 7 ptimum photoperiod (116, 311). However, others found no correlation between the optimum photoperiod and the photoperiod sensitivity of the many cultivars they tested (572). A photoperiod longer or shorter than the optimum has been shown to delay flowering, the delay depending upon the cultivar? fs sensitivity (311, 316, 319, 371, 393, 459, 5 13, 568). The term supraoptimum photoperiod has been used when the photoperiod is shorter than the optimum. Panicle initiation in plants receiving a photoperiod as low as 4 h has been reported (140). No flowering has resulted under a 2-h light period (140). Plants receiving 8-h light and varying dark periods from 16 to 64 h showed inhibited shoot apex conversion (219). This was ascribed to inadequacy of carbon compounds for synthesis of requisite quantity of flowering hormone. The turning point mentioned by Yu and Yao (568) is similar to the optimum photoperiod, but the photoperiod values they reported were larger because these were not the photoperiods at which growth is shortest but the photoperiods at which the first long-day effect is manifested. Critical photoperiod Scripchinsky (417), reviewing the literature on rice, indicated that the rice plants have a ? critical length of day for flowering.? h Later studies showed the presence of a critical photoperiod ranging from 12 to 14 h (175, 209, 244, 354, 478, 490, 500, 553). The critical photoperiods determined under controlled photoperiod rooms were almost the same as the day length from sunrise to sunset at 30 d before flowering under natural conditions (499). The lower the latitude of origin of a cultivar or strain, the shorter is its critical photoperiod (196, 356). The critical period is influenced by temperature (566) and lengthens as the plant becomes older (2 12). The PSP of a cultivar is probably a measure of the combined effect of photoperiod on its optimum photoperiod and critical photoperiod. The shorter the critical photoperiod, the longer is the PSP. Short optimum photoperiod is also associated with long PSP. Photoinductive cycles A photoperiodic cycle that induces the initiation of flowers on plants is called a photoinductive cycle. A 10-h photoperiod alternating with a 14-h dark period is one possible photoinductive cycle of a short-day rice cultivar. The minimum number of photoinductive cycles necessary to initiate the panicle primordium of a rice plant varies from 4 to 24. This required minimum number varies not only with cultivar, but also with the photoperiod being used (13, 21, 26, 142, 195, 292, 338, 344, 408, 449, 500, 527, 529). The number of photoinductive cycles necessary increases with photoperiod length (190, 195, 203, 204, 527). According to Katayama (190), the minimum number increases proportionally with the photoperiod used, although others (527) failed to obtain a proportional increase using a different cultivar. Katayama (190) found that the minimum number was lower in cultivars from higher latitudes than in those from lower latitudes. The flowering response of the rice plant to photoperiod Suge (463) showed that different numbers of photoinductive cycles produced different amounts of floral stimulus. He also found that Gibberellin A3 reduced the minimum number of photoinductive cycles necessary to induce flowering. However, gibberellin alone did not induce flowering under noninductive photoperiods. That a certain number of photoinductiv e cycles is required to induce flowering suggests that the stimulus produced by the treatment is cumulative and that flower induction occurs when the stimulus has reached a certain threshold level (205, 206, 208). Photoinductive cycles interrupted by noninductive cycles can negate to different degrees the effect of the photoinductive cycles (200, 206, 345). There are also indications that emergence of the panicle from the flag leaf sheath is a process separate from panicle initiation. For example, internode elongation, after the panicle has been initiated, proceeds more rapidly at shorter than at longer photoperiods (26, 37, 67, 135, 425, 451, 512, 529), and earliness is further induced if the treatment is prolonged until flowering (33, 438, 498). It is possible, however, that panicle initiation and exsertion are separate processes, but certainly the latter proceeds only after the panicle has been formed. The effect of photoperiod on exsertion may be on fuller development of the panicle, hence indirectly affecting elongation of the first internode or exsertion of the panicle. Plants subjected to insufficient photoinductive cycles sometimes form panicles but no emergence occurs (see Table 1) (92, 122, 344, 512, 526). A difference of two photoinductive cycles could make the difference between exsertion or nonexsertion of the panicle. Several workers, however, have reported that photoperiod has only a slight effect on culm elongation and panicle emergence (85, 116, 338, 473); but the cultivars used (85, 338, 473) were generally weakly photoperiodic because the differences between the control and the treated plants were relatively small (16 d at most). In another instance, the treatment was started at a later stage . 20 d before the standard heading time . at which time the plants had received sufficient photoperiodic stimulus for panicle initiation and emergence (1 16). In another experiment, long photoperiods had no effect on the terminal bud that had reached the stage of differentiation of secondary branch primordia (345). Reversals from a reproductive to a vegetative phase have been reported (54, 342). In some instances, however, the panicle is initiated and differentiated but Table 1. Response of 30-d-old BPI-76 seedlings given different numbers of 10-h photoinductive cycles. Days from sowing Days from sowing Cycles (no. ) to panicle to panicle initiation emergence 8 ** 10 47 ** 12 47 88 Continuous 46 66 *No panicle initiation 200 d after treament. **No panicle meregence 200 d after treament * The flowering response of the rice plant to photoperiod 9 does not emerge (526). The unexserted panicle ceases to grow, and instead the terminal growth is dominated by a shoot from a node below the panicle. Such a situation is not a true reversal of the growing point. In more recent histological studies, incomplete short-day treatment changed the bract pri mordium into a leaf primordium, a true reversal of some parts of the growing point (346). Reception of the photoperiodic stimulus and translocation The photoperiodic stimulus may be received by the leaves of the rice plant (24). The leaf sheaths can receive the stimulus as shown by removing the leaf blades and subjecting the plant to photoinductive treatments (26, 142, 481). More photoinductive cycles were needed to induce flowering when the leaf blades were removed (142). Defoliated plants responded to light interruption given during dark periods as well as the intact plants (142). In one cultivar, the culm received the photoperiodid stimulus (26). Evidently, the leaf most receptive to the stimulus is the youngest fully formed leaf (263). The first leaves, up to the sixth leaf, are either insensitive or have low sensitivity to photoperiod (26). It is difficult to study this aspect of leaf sensitivity because grafting experiments with the rice plant are difficult. Removing the leaves at regular intervals after the end of the photoinductive cycles showed that the floral stimulus moves gradually from the leaves to the terminal bud (142, 464). The translocation of the stimulus depends on temperature. It was also reported that the rate of translocation of the stimulus is the same regardless of the number of photoinductive cycles received by the plant (463). The question of stimulus movement from one tiller to another has also attracted the attention of several workers. When a plant was divided and half was kept under a 24-h photoperiod and the other half under an 8-h photoperiod, the half subjected to the short-day treatment flowered while that under long-day treatment remained vegetative (230, 232). The results indicate that the stimulus is not transmitted from one tiller to another. This finding has been substantiated by other workers using different cultivars and methods (263, 408, 521). Manuel and Velasco (263) concluded that the stimulus that induces flowering can be conserved in the stubble and later transferred to the ratoon but not to a neighboring tiller of the same age as the donor. Sasamura (413), however, reported that the floral stimulus goes from the main culm to its tillers. The irregularities observed in photoperiod-sensitive cultivars when planted during the off-season, for example, the high number of nonflowering tillers, have been attributed to the effect of the photoinductive cycles received by the plant and their nontranslocation to the succeeding tillers formed (521). Light intensity and quality The light intensities used to prevent or delay flowering varied from 1 to more than 200 lx. Incandescent, tungsten, as well as fluorescent bulbs have been used (69, 143, 310, 396, 484, 489, 503, 538, 565, 570, 577). The brighter the illumination, the stronger the retarding effect. 10 The flowering response of the rice plant to photoperiod Delay in flowering with light intensities varying from 10 to 100 lx and even at 1 lx (310, 484) has been reported (538, 565, 589). Extending the day length using light intensities of less than 200 lx during the first or last 3 h of the 12-h dark period did not prevent flowering (478). In another experiment, 2-h illumination at 15 lx before a 9-h dark period showed some inhibiting effect and 1-h illumination at 500 lx incandescent light before a 9-h dark period inhibited flowering (143). In correlating laboratory studies with field studies, the natural photoperiod used is usually based on the sunrise-to-sunset duration. Such measurements are unsatisfactory in assessing periods of effective light because very low light intensities have been known to effect photoperiod responses in some experiments. Civil twilight in the morning can generally delay flowering but civil twilight in the evening may or may not delay flowering (143, 196, 205, 502). Civil twilight ends when the light intensity is about 4 lx. Twilight, of course, varies with localities and within the year. The critical light that results in delayed flowering is around 5 lx and sometimes 10 lx, depending on variety and other factors (174). Twilight intensity also varies and may be higher in the morning than in the afternoon (Fig. 4). Katayama (196) attributes the greater effectiveness of the morning twilight to higher intensity. Cloudy weather affects twilight duration. Takimoto and Ikeda (478), however, concluded that the photoperiodically effective day length is equal to the astronomical day length (sunrise to sunset) because twilight (less than 200 lx) had little effect on photoperiodic induction in their experiment. Wormer (538) showed that low light intensities for 6 h (10-100 lx) given after a 12-h daylight can delay flowering. Farmers have complained that their rice plants did not flower regularly because of the electric lights installed along their fields (552). One incident has been reported in which the light from a flame of waste natural gas prevented normal 4. Change of light intensity during civil twilight (after Katayama [196]). The flowering response of the rice plant to photoperiod 11 flowering in rice. The effect of light was noticeable up to about 270 m from the flare (22). Although light from incandescent bulbs is generally used for photoperiod studies, other colors have been tried in rice. The blue-violet part of the spectrum has been shown to retard flowering (260) as has infrared light (323). The delay in flowering caused by green light is very slight, only 4-5 d later than natural day length (234). Green has, therefore, been used in light traps for the moth. Red light is the most effective in delaying flowering, while blue showed some effect only at high intensities and in the most photoperiod-sensitive cultivars (26, 146, 153, 503). The phytochrome pigment is generally regarded as the system that interacts with photoperiod or with different light qualities, such as red, far-red, and blue. Such pigment has been studied in rice coleoptile by Pjon and Furuya (378, 379). For panicle initiation, rice needs a high light intensity during the light period. The inhibition caused by low-intensity light during the light period can be overcome effectively by exposing the plant to high-intensity light immediately before or after the inductive dark period (140, 145). This phenomenon is similar to that reported in other short-day plants and is evidently a carbohydrate requirement. This requirement would explain why a 2-h light period followed by 22-h dark period did not induce flowering (140). Ikeda (145) reported, however, that plants growing in low-intensity light during the photoinductive period but briefly exposed to high-intensity light before the inductive dark period had floral induction, suggesting that light requirement for floral induction of rice is not entirely concerned with photosynthesis. In the flowering response of the rice cultivars to photoperiod, red light given during the dark period inhibited flowering (136, 146, 148, 411, 442). The effect of red light increased with intensity. Red light, as low as 10 ? EW/cm 2 given for 3 h or 290 ? EWc/cm 2 for 15 min in the middle of the dark period, inhibited flowering (146, 148, 149). Red light was most effective in inhibiting panicle initiation when given in the middle of the dark period (150). With red light, the period of exposure needed to inhibit floral development was shorter than with white light (146). The inhibiting effect of red light has also been shown in experiments involving red and far-red lights. Far-red after red nullifies the delaying effect of red light and promotes flowering (411). Far-red before a 9- or 10-h dark period promotes flowering and this effect can be reversed by red light (146, 149, 152). Far-red enhances flowering whereas blue retards flowering (185). Far-red after the critical dark period can shorten the critical dark period as well as reduce the minimum number of inductive cycles required (145). Interruption of the dark period Sensitive strains of rice respond to light interruption (26, 69, 218, 232, 260, 323, 449, 570, 577). Light given in the middle of the dark period delayed the flowering of the sensitive cultivar Shuan-chiang (570). The light intensity used was 1001x and the duration varied from a flash to as long as 15 min. The degree of delay was greater in the light interruption of a 12-h dark period (12 light and 12 dark) than of a 16-h dark period (8 light and 16 dark) (577). Interrupting the light period with darkness did not accelerate flowering. 12 The flowering response of the rice plant to photoperiod The earlier the interposition of the light during the dark period, the greater was the delay (449). The findings show that the flowering response of the plant is determined by the longest dark period. Days from photoinductive treatment to flowering The literature indicates that the number of days from panicle initiation to flowering is about 35. Many workers have reported that the difference among cultivars is small (7, 407, 511, 551). Others found that the number of days from panicle initiation to flowering ranges from 10 to 241 d (425). It seems obvious, however, that 10 d is too short for the full development of a panicle. Flowering may be delayed by long photoperiods after panicle initiation (176, 524). But if the plants are given photoinductive cycles beyond the minimum requirement, the subsequent photoperiods have very little effect on flowering and elongation (501, 524). Auxin application can nullify the delaying effect of long photoperiods (176). Under natural day length, the number of days from the first-bract differentiation stage to flowering varied from 27 to 46 d, depending upon the cultivar and time of sowing (14, 270). Reports vary on the number of days from the start of the photoinductive treatment to flowering. Misra (285) reported 37 d in 30-, 40-, 50-, 60-, and 70-d-old plants of the cultivar T. 36 using a 10-h photoperiod. Fuke (93) noted that the plants flowered about 28 d after treatment. The number of days from photoinductive treatment to flowering depends upon the photoperiod being used. Panicle initiation and flowering were earlier under the 10-h than under the 11- and 12-h photoperiods (527). Using 168 F 2 plants, those treated under the 10-h photoperiod took 30-47 d to flower, or a mean of 35. d (Li, unpublished data. For practical purposes, an estimate of 35 d should be workable. Thus, to obtain the BVP or the time of panicle initiation, 35 d can be subtracted from the minimum growth duration of the cultivar. In studying the effect of photoperiod on the flowering of the rice plant, the most fundamental consideration is panicle initiation because it marks the actual change from the vege tative to the reproductive phase. Instead of using this as a basis, however, most studies use the flowering date, which is only a projection of the variations of the date of panicle initiation. To a certain extent, several factors can affect the stage from panicle initiation to emergence. In some instances, panicle initiation can occur without the subsequent emergence. The panicle primordium is aborted and a vegetative shoot may dominate the growing tip (527). A methodological question might therefore arise regarding accuracy of the experiments based on flowering date. The practicality of the method, however, far outweighs the need for extreme accuracy. Biochemical changes during photoinduction Very little work has been done on the chemical changes occurring during photoinduction and panicle development in rice. An increase in the rate of respiration of rice shoot apices with each photoinductive cycle given to the eighth The flowering response of the rice plant to photoperiod 13 day, followed by a gradual decline in rate, has been reported (293). The peak of the respiration rate almost coincides with the minimum photoinductive cycles needed by the rice plant at 8 h of photoperiod. The results suggest that the photoperiodic mechanism in the flowering of rice involves a respiratory shift. This corroborates the findings of Elliot and Leopold (86) who used other plant species. The changes in carbohydrate and nitrogen content of rice plants subjected to short days were also studied by Misra and Mishra (299). Unfortunately, the difference in heading between treated and control plants was only 4 d. Khan and Misra (222) reported an increase in sugar and nitrogen content of the leaves when subjected to photoinductive cycles. Photoinduction increases the gibberellic acid activity, although the value is low (461). This immediate rice, visible after three photoinductive cycles, returns to a level lower than that of the original. The rice plant is difficult to use for studies on biochemical changes during reproduction. Perhaps it is best to leave this type of study to other short-day plants. Effect of temperature on the flowering response to photoperiod The flowering of the rice plant is mainly controlled by two ecological factors . day length and temperature . which are often interrelated. The plant may respond to temperature and photoperiod simultaneously, but the degree would vary according to the cultivar. Cultivars have been classified based on these two factors (248, 356, 530). Temperature affects both the photoperiod-sensitive and photoperiodinsensitive cultivars. Generally, high temperature accelerates and low temperature delays heading (5, 6, 90, 126, 186, 307, 339, 340, 370, 376, 409, 410, 439, 456, 531). Some reports, however, have shown that high temperature delays flowering (15, 18, 394). The acceleration of the photoperiod response by high temperature is an overall effect, but it does not indicate the specific effects on the different stages leading to flowering. The effect of temperature on the BVP, photoinductive period, panicle differentiation and development, and critical photoperiod has not been fully studied. Uekuri (506, 507) studied the effect of low temperature during the BVP and found a definite delay in attaining the PSP. The degree of extension of the BVP by low temperature varied with the cultivars used. The growing point of the shoot is the receptive organ for the low-temperature effect, not the leaf blades (506). Ahn (5) reported that high temperature reduced the BVP but had very little effect on the PSP. As early as 1931, Fuke had considered the effect of temperature during the photoinductive period. He used snow to lower the darkroom temperature, but the 5-10? †¹C decrease had little effect on heading. Temperatures above 20? †¹C to 29? †¹C accelerate panicle initiation (24, 341). Vergara and Lilis (524) showed that the vegetative primordium was converted to reproductive primordium at the same time or at the same morphological stage regardless of temperature (21-32? †¹C). 14 The flowering response of the rice plant to photoperiod Haniu et a1 (1 15) found similar results. These results contradict those reported by Noguchi and Kamata (341) and Best (24). Temperatures below 15? †¹C inhibited initiation and bud development (156). Floral induction, however, is possible at 15? †¹C (341) but not at 12 or 40oC (115). Because many test plants died in the growing process, 15? †¹ C is assumed to be near the lowest limit for rice growth (341). The optimum temperature reported for photoinduction is 30o C (1 15). The question still remains as to whether a critical temperature for photoinduction exists. The optimum temperature for photoinduction may vary depending upon the photoperiod being used. The optimum temperature tended to be higher under a longer photoperiod and vice versa (24, 364). Putting it another way, at a certain temperature each cultivar has its own optimum day length under which it flowers at the earliest date (459, 572). Detailed microscopic studies of the development of the panicle primordium have shown that high temperature accelerates panicle development (260). The critical temperature for young panicle differentiation has been reported to be 18oC (555). Best (24) has also shown that panicle development, especially in its later stages, is accelerated at high temperatures (35-37oC). On the other hand, low temperature markedly retards panicle primordium development, and, below 25oC, the panicle may not emerge completely from the flag leaf sheath (24). A night temperature of 24. 4oC was found more favorable than 29 and 35? C in accelerating the flowering of the Elon-elon cultivar (263). High night temperature accelerates flowering (220). This was attributed to increased production of florigen during the dark period. This may not be the case and dissecting plants after photoinductive treatments may reveal if it was an acceleration in panicle development and exsertion rather than in panicle initiation. Others have found that the acceleration in flowering with high temperature is the result of acceleration in panicle exsertion, which, in turn, is the result of shorter leafing interval (524). Obviously, caution should be taken in determining the time of panicle initiation by observing the heading date because the exact date of panicle initiation cannot be determined by this method. Measurements and methods of testing photoperiod sensitivity Most studies on the photoperiodism of the rice plant have been considered from two standpoints, namely, classification of the cultivar into photoperiod-sensitive and photoperiod-insensitive types and measurement of the degree of sensitivity. The classification may be relatively easy, but the measurement is rather complex (195). As a result, several methods of measuring photoperiod sensitivity have been developed. Studies on the measurement of photoperiod sensitivity are usually based on the reduction in the number of days as a result of short-day treatment (1 16, 195, 205, 327, 329, 357, 553, 574). Other methods were more specific; they measured the optimum photoperiod (40), critical photoperiod (351), or the gradient of the response curve (34, 192, 247) as the basis of sensitivity. Hara (116) was the first to measure photoperiod sensitivity using the formula: X The flowering response of the rice plant to photoperiod 15 = T . Y/Y X 100, where Y is the number of days required to head under standard conditions and T is the number of days required under an 8-h photoperiod. Several similar formulas have been used by other workers. The percentage or index obtained from such formulas, however, does not clearly define photoperiod sensitivity. The results usually apply only to the area where the rice was tested since the natural day length is usually used as the control. Chandraratna (37, 40) used second-degree polynomials to compute the minimum heading duration and optimum photoperiod; this method involved using at least three photoperiods. He showed that cultivars differ in both characters. Oka (352) and Katayama (192, 201) measured the critical photoperiod and the degree of sensitivity of several cultivars using different methods and formulas and came up with their preferred method of measurement. Both workers used the natural day length as a basis for computation and assumed that flowering occurs 30 d after photoinduction. Best (25) and Li (249), using a method similar to Chandraratna's (34, 37, 40), measured sensitivity based on response curves obtained by plotting the time from sowing to floral initiation on the ordinate and the photoperiod used on the abscissa. The method, however, requires a wide range of photoperiods. Li (249) also studied photoperiod sensitivity in terms of the BVP and the PSP. The BVP was obtained in plants grown under 10 h of light, and the PSP (which is a measure of sensitivity) by subtracting the growth duration under the 10-h photoperiod from that under the 16-h photoperiod. The PSP values obtained show the possible maximum range in growth duration as a result of extending the photoperiod. The photoperiodic characteristics of a rice plant have been described by Stewart (458) who used a different criterion based on 1) basic vegetative period in terms of degree-days (based on temperature accumulation), 2) photoinduction period in degree-days or degree-minutes (using accumulated night length), and 3) panicle development period in degree-days (based on temperature accumulation). Tests under field conditions were analyzed by this method and predictions were made on the response of the cultivar sown in different months. In Japan, the flowering response is evaluated using the floral stages (135, 463). The Japanese workers have used the scale of 0-7, based mainly on the length of the developing panicle. This destructive measurement is more accurate than the usual days from sowing to flowering or treatment to flowering. The choice of the most appropriate method of testing and describing the response to photoperiod depends upon the purpose of the experiment and the available facilities. From the physiological standpoint, however, controlled photoperiod and temperature are desired because of their advantages over natural photoperiods and temperatures. Date-of-planting experiments Day length changes rhythmically within a year and varies depending upon the latitude. The amount of change in day length during the rice cropping season differs from one latitude to another (Fig. 5). Even in locations at the same latitude the day length during the cropping season may differ because the planting dates 16 The flowering response of the rice plant to photoperiod 5. Day length changes during the cropping season at various locations in Asia. may differ greatly depending mostly on the rainfall pattern at each location. At northern latitudes (Sapporo, 43? †¹ N, and Konosu, 36? †¹ N) day ength increases and then decreases during the cropping season (Fig. 5). At lower latitudes (Taipei, 25? †¹N, and Los Banos, 14? †¹N) day length decreases during the main growing season. Near the equator (Bukit Merah, 5? †¹N) there is little change. These differences in day length during the growing season may account for the wide range of photoperiod response of rice cultivars. A rice cultivar that must have less than 12 h o daylight to flower will obviously flower too late at the northern latitudes because frost will set in before harvest. In the northern hemisphere, the longest days are in June and the shortest are in December. Taking these into account, the photoperiod response of the rice cultivars can be tested to a limited extent by planting the cultivars at a certain location at different dates. Maximum differences in growth duration can be obtained in the May and November plantings if temperatures are not too low for growth. If a rice? fs growth duration changes more than 30 d, agronomists usually consider it photoperiod sensitive or a seasonal cultivar. As Best (24) has pointed out, this criterion is not specific enough for research on photoperiodism, and caution should be taken in evaluating the data obtained. These phenological data, however, are important to breeders in selecting ecotypes. This method of testing sensitivity to photoperiod has been followed in Australia (245), Brazil (l03, 579), China (44, 356, 582), India (98, 99, 101, 214, 220, 295, 298, 423), Indonesia (467), Japan (533, 548), Korea (247, 466), Malaysia (74, 77, 244), Philippines (91, 512), Russia (452), Senegal (66), Sierra Leone (68, 536), Sri Lanka (112, 259, 402), Thailand (381), Trinidad (325), and United States of America (177, 180). The flowering response of the rice plant to photoperiod 17 These experiments strongly confirm the existence of wide cultivar differences in the effect of planting date on flowering date. Many of the results obtained from this type of testing, however, are not applicable to identical cultivars grown at different latitudes. A cultivar can be insensitive to day length in Malaysia but sensitive in Taiwan. Results of field tests at a certain latitude are, therefore, not always applicable at another latitude. Some published papers on the use of this testing method failed to mention latitude or the place where the tests were conducted. Under natural conditions very small differences in day length can affect the rice plant. In Malacca (Malaysia), the difference between the maximum and the minimum day lengths is only 14 min and yet the cultivar Siam 29 takes 329 d to flower when planted in January and only 161 d when planted in September (76). Another instance showing the sensitivity of the rice plant to small differences in day length was reported in a date-of-planting experiment in Malaysia (244). There was a difference of as much as 156 d in the growth duration of photoperiodsensitive cultivars when planted in the same month but in different years (Table 2). This presumably resulted from differences in weather during the critical periods. Cloudy weather early or late in the day shortens the twilight hour, thus shortening the day length. Toriyama et al (490) tested rice cultivars involving not only monthly planting but also sowing at different latitudes (Sri Lanka, Taiwan, and Japan). This gives a better idea of the photoperiodic response of the cultivars but involves much work and cooperation. Ecology and photoperiodism Rice can be grown over a wide range of environmental conditions, from the equator to about 53? N latitude, leading to the differentiation and establishment of various ecotypes and forms. The great diversity in photoperiod sensitivity from one latitude to another or within a latitude probably indicates that the rice cultivars predominantly cultivated in each area are those that have been selected on the basis of local adaptability (that is, adaptability to the temperature of the rice-growing season, day length, and duratio n of the growing season) to assure the full development of the plant and the best possible balance between vegetative and reproductive growth (423, 530, 532, 584, 585). Table 2. Growth duration (days from sowing to flowering) of photo. period-sensitive cultivars when planted in January 1962 and 1963 at several localities in Malaysia (244). Cultivar Locality Jan 1962 Jan 1963 Difference Engkatek Telok Chengai 136 292 156 Kota Bahru 146 243 97 Kuala Lumpur 134 97 37 Subang Bukit Merah 270 224 46 lntan 117 Kuala Lumpur 171 138 33 Kota Bahru 276 176 100 18 The flowering response of the rice plant to photoperiod A major problem in studying the ecology of the rice plant, especially in reference to photoperiodism, is that cultivars in farmers' fields keep changing. For example, Hara reported in 1930 that Japanese cultivars were more sensitive than the cultivars from mainland China and Taiwan. He concluded that the lower the latitude of the region of the native habitat, the less sensitive were the cultivars there. Wada (531), using 134 cultivars, showed contrasting results . the cultivars from the northern region of Japan had lower photoperiod sensitivity than those from the southern region. Recent papers, however, generally agree that among the photoperiod-sensitive cultivars, the lower the latitude ofdistribution, the higher the sensitivity (351, 352, 356, 531, 583). The cultivars in the tropics or lower latitudes are usually late maturing (long growth duration). Many studies show that the late cultivars are more sensitive to photoperiod than the early ones (116, 248, 357, 511, 563, 583). In the tropics, where rice can be grown any time of the year provided there is sufficient water, photoperiod sensitivity presents certain problems. During the off-season, when the day length during the early growth stage is increasing, the sensitive cultivars are uneconomical to use because they take a very long time to produce any grain. For wider adaptability, cultivars should have low photoperiod sensitivity (53, 70) and thus have little differences in growth duration when planted at different times of the year or at varying latitudes. Insensitive cultivars have been successfully grown at different latitudes where rice is used as a crop (45, 351, 352, 511, 532, 568. This indicates that it should not 6. Growth duration of IR8 planted in June or July at 12 sites in Asia. La Trinidad and Kanke are high-altitude areas (52). The flowering response of the rice plant to photoperiod 19 e difficult to introduce new photoperiod-insensitive cultivars to different ricegrowing areas or to culture them year-round in the tropics. The plant breeders, as the varieties coming out indicate, are developing more photoperiod-insensitive cultivars. Extensive testing in various rice-growing areas of the world has established the wide adaptability of photoperiod-insensitive cultivars. In general, the longer the BVP the less variation ingro wth duration and the stronger the PSP the greater the variation in growth duration (581). The wide adaptability and the stable growth duration of IR8, a photoperiod-insensitive cultivar, are indicated by the data furnished by cooperators in various parts of the world. IR8? fs growth duration varied within a range of 20 d at latitudes from 11o to 27oN except at high altitudes where low temperatures prevailed during part of the growing season (Fig. 6). A more illuminating example of the effect of temperature comes from monthly planting at Los Banos, Philippines, and at Joydebpur, Bangladesh (Fig. 7). A comparison between the monthly mean temperatures and mean photoperiods shows that the more variable heading pattern at Joydebpur is more closely associated with temperature rather than with the prevailing photoperiod. The effect of low temperature on the improved tropical cultivars becomes more obvious in photoperiod-insensitive cultivars. 7. Mean monthly temperatures and day length in relation to the growth duration of IR8 at Los Banos, Philippines, and Joydebpur, Bangladesh (52) 20 The flowering response of the rice plant to photoperiod Sensitivity to photoperiod of rice cultivars in the deep water areas is an important characteristic for survival (104, 520). The floating rice cultivars are highly photoperiod sensitive. They are planted early in the season when the soil can still be worked and without danger of submerging the young seedlings. Flowering occurs when the floodwater peaks or starts receding. If the cultivar flowers when the floodwater is still rising, it would mean the complete loss of the crop if the panicles are submerged. Elongation ability ceases after panicle emergence. Harvesting is usually done when the floodwaters have receded. The maturity of floating rice cultivars coincides with the receding of the annual floodwaters which may be 150-270 d after sowing. Such a long growth duration requires a photoperiod-sensitive cultivar. So far, there is no known tropical cultivar that has a long growth duration and is not sensitive to photoperiod. Photoperiod sensitivity may work as a safety mechanism when precise planting dates are not followed and environmental conditions such as water level cannot be effectively controlled. If the date of sowing or transplanting is delayed because of insufficient rainfall, a photoperiod-sensitive cultivar may still mature at its usual time (352, 382). Plants are not seriously damaged if left in the seedbed for prolonged periods because the growth duration of the main crop is sufficiently long for the plants to adjust. Thus, land preparation and transplanting can be staggered (382). Maturation of the crop at the same time. as with photoperiod-sensitive cultivars planted at different dates, may reduce rat and insect damage in any one field. Also, harvesting and drying are simplified. If the soil is not sufficiently fertile, a photoperiod-sensitive cultivar will continue its compelled vegetative growth until the short days come. This would give the plant enough time to reach a reasonable plant weight and accumulate enough carbohydrates before flowering (528). Thus, a photoperiod-sensitive cultivar generally may be more resistant to unfavorable conditions. Long-growthduration cultivars (essentially photoperiod sensitive) are least affected by strong soil reduction (549). Most upland rice cultivars have short growth duration and are photoperiodinsensitive (11, 12). However, in areas where the rainfall pattern is bimodal, as in northern Thailand, the cultivars are of medium growth duration and are photoperiod-sensitive . possibly another indication of the greater specific adaptability of long-growth-duration cultivars to adverse conditions. The sensitivity to photoperiod of wild species has also been studied in relation to their ecological distribution. Most of the wild rice materials tested were sensitive (191, 201, 205, 209, 353). They suggested that this sensitivity favors the wild rice plants and is perhaps essential to their survival. Terminology used in describing photoperiod ensitivity There is confusion in the terms used to describe the response of the rice plant to day length (515). Often, the terms used for growth duration are also used for response to photoperiod (see Table 3). As early as 1912, Kikkawa pointed out that The flowering response of the rice plant to photoperiod 21 Table 3. Some terms used in describing the growth duratio n and day length response of rice cultivars. Terms References Response to day lengths: date fixed vs period fixed season fixed vs period fixed season bound vs period bound timely fixed vs periodically fixed short-day plant vs long-day plant ensitive vs indifferent sensitive vs insensitive sensitive vs less sensitive short-day plant vs indifferent plant strongly photoperiodic vs weakly photoperiodic sensitive vs photosensitive vs photononsensitive day length sensitive vs day photoperiodic photoperiodic insensitive length nonsensitive early, medium, and late long-aged vs short-aged early flowering vs late flowering late maturing vs early maturing Season of planting: aman vs non-aman yala vs maha winter vs summer main-season vs off-season first crop vs second crop wet vs dry season aus, aman, boro, rabi, kharif Growth duration: 33 7 214, 511 308 1, 99, 336 3 68, 352, 353 21, 98, 449, 538 563 51 1 195, 352 339 574 91, 276, 277, 281 259 158 3, 230, 374 427 112 444 Malaysia, Indonesia, an d Thailand China Philippines Bangladesh, India it is meaningless to classify the rice cultivars of the world into such groups as early, medium, late, aus, or aman. He said, however, that this classification is useful in districts where the climates are similar. The use of the terms photoperiod-sensitive and photoperiod-nonsensitive in reporting the flowering response of a rice cultivar to changes in day length has been suggested (515). Weakly photoperiod-sensitive is sometimes used in place of photoperiod-nonsensitive because the existence of a completely photoperiod-nonsensitive cultivar is difficult to prove. Weakly photoperiod-sensitive is also used to describe cultivars whose flowering is delayed by as many as 70 d by long photoperiods. However, those types can be planted any month of the year in the tropics and can be expected to flower within the crop season. The terms short-day plant and long-day plant are not satisfactory because most rice cultivars today are short-day plants. Sensitive and insensitive, sensitive and indifferent, and sensitive and less sensitive are ambiguous terms. Because the response being described is a response to light period and not only to light, the terms photosensitive and photononsensitive are inappropriate. 22 The flowering response of the rice plant to photoperiod 8. Effect of four photoperiod treatments on the seeding-to-heading period of seven rice cultivars. Chang and Vergara (51, 52, 53) classified rice cultivars into four types using the length of the BVP and PSP as criteria (Fig. 8). Their classification was based on duration of plants grown in the greenhouse. Under this classification, the Japanese varieties, such as Fujisaka 5 and Norin 20 (Appendix), do not fall under any category because they have a short BVP and short PSP. Also, at least four photoperiods (10, 12, 14, and 16 h) are needed to classify the cultivars. A more practical grouping could be as follows (using also the length of the BVP and PSP). 1. Photoperiod nonsensitive . very short PSP (less than 30 d) and BVP varying from short to long. 2. Weakly photoperiod-sensitive . arked increase in growth duration when photoperiod is longer than 12 h; PSP may exceed 30 d, but flowering occurs under any long photoperiod. 3. Strongly photoperiod sensitive – sharp increase in growth duration with increase in photoperiod; no flowering beyond critical photoperiod; BVP usually short (not more than 40 d). Cultivars tested under only two photoperiods, such as 10 and 14 h, can also be classified according to these groupings (1 1). Agronomists and farmers would tend to use these groupings. The flowering response of the rice plant to photoperiod 23 Inheritance of vegetative growth duration The inheritance of the duration from seeding to heading in cultivated rices has been studied by many research workers, but the findings have resulted in diverse interpretations. Three categories of genetic postulates were generally offered: 1) monogenic or digenic control of heading date, with earliness dominant to lateness; 2) monogenic or digenic control of flowering date, with lateness being a dominant trait; and 3) multiple-factor inheritance in which the F 2 population showed a continuous and often unimodal distribution and in which the same population might produce a bimodal distribution when grown in a different season (44, 509). In experiments where photoperiod sensitivity was recognized, delayed flowering under a long photoperiod was generally inherited as a monogenic or digenic dominant trait (38, 242, 406, 424, 567). In several crosses involving distantly related parents, sensitivity to photoperiod appeared to be a recessive trait (242, 406). The continuous and transgressive segregation in several F 2 populations involving photoperiod-insensitive parents was ascribed to multiple genes, which indicated dominance of earliness (41, 95, 96, 97, 333, 389, 469, 554). However, in crosses among varieties in Yunnan Province in China, photoperiod sensitivity appeared to be a recessive trait in some F 1 hybrids (252). Some of the divergent interpretations just mentioned resulted partly from failure to recognize the composite nature of the vegetative growth period from seeding to panicle primordium initiation, partly from failure to control the interaction of the environmental factors (mainly photoperiod and air temperatures) and the different genes controlling the vegetative growth period, or from failure to relate the phenotypic expression with the revailing environment. Recent studies at IRRI (48, 161, 162, 163, 164, 165, 167, 168, 249) have demonstrated physiologically and genetically the feasibility of partitioning the vegetative growt