IB Biology syllabus definitions Essays - Classical Genetics

IB Biology syllabus definitions Essays - Classical Genetics IB Biology syllabus definitions * Definition given in IB Biology syllabus TOPICWORDDEFINITION Topic 1: CellsOrganelleA discrete structure within a cell, with a specific function.* TissueA group of cells similar to each other, along with their associated intercellular substances, which perform the same function within a multicellular organism. OrganA group of tissues which work together as a single unit to perform a particular function within a multicellular organism. Organ systemA group of organs, vessels, glands, other tissues, and/or pathways which work together to perform a body function within a multicellular organism. Diffusion The passive movement of molecules from a region of high concentration to a region of low concentration. OsmosisThe passive movement of water molecules, across a partially permeable membrane, from a region of lower solute concentration to a region of higher solute concentration.* Topic 2: The Chemistry of LifeOrganicCompounds containing carbon that are found in living organisms (except hydrogencarbonates, carbonates and oxides of carbon).* EnzymeProteins that act as biological catalysts, speeding the rate at which biochemical reactions proceed but not altering the direction or nature of the reactions. Active siteA specific region of an enzyme where a substrate binds and catalysis takes place. DenaturationA structural change in a protein that results in a loss (usually permanent) of its biological properties. Refer only to heat and pH as agents.* DegenerateHaving more than one base triplet to code for one amino acid.* UniversalFound in all living organisms.* Cell respirationControlled release of energy in the form of ATP from organic compounds in cells.* TOPICWORDDEFINITION Topic 3: GeneticsGeneA heritable factor that controls a specific characteristic. (The differences between structural genes, regulator genes and genes coding for tRNA and rRNA are not expected at SL).* AlleleOne specific form of a gene, differing from other alleles by one or a few bases only and occupying the same gene locus as other alleles of the gene.* GenomeThe whole of the genetic information of an organism.* Gene mutationA change in the base sequence of a gene on DNA. This could be by substitution, deletion, or insertion of a base or bases. The terms point mutation or frameshift mutation will not be used. Homologous chromosomesA pair of chromosomes containing the same linear gene sequences, each derived from one parent. GenotypeThe alleles possessed by an organism.* PhenotypeThe characteristics of an organism.* Dominant alleleAn allele that has the same effect on the phenotype whether it is present in the homozygous or heterozygous state.* Dominant alleles mask the effects of recessive alleles. Recessive alleleAn allele that only has an effect on the phenotype when present in the homozygous state.* Codominant allelesPairs of alleles that both affect the phenotype when present in a heterozygote. (The terms incomplete and partial will no longer be used.)* LocusThe particular position on homologous chromosomes of a gene.* HomozygousHaving two identical alleles of a gene.* HeterozygousHaving two different alleles of a gene.* CarrierAn individual that has a recessive allele of a gene that does not have an effect on their phenotype.* Test crossTesting a suspected heterozygote by crossing it with a known homozygous recessive. (The term backcross is no longer used.)* Sex linkageGenes found on sex chromosomes (X and Y chromosomes) are said to be sex linked. Genetic screeningTesting an individual for the presence or absence of a gene.* CloneA group of genetically identical organisms or a group of cells artificially derived from a single parent cell.* TOPICWORDDEFINITION Topic 4: Ecology and EvolutionEcologyThe study of relationships between living organisms and between organisms and their environment.* EcosystemA community and its abiotic environment.* PopulationA group of organisms of the same species who live in the same area at the same time.* CommunityA group of populations living and interacting with each other in an area.* SpeciesA group of organisms which can interbreed and produce fertile offspring.* HabitatThe environment in which a species normally lives or the location of a living organism.* Autotroph (producer)An organism that fixes chemical energy in the form of organic molecules; it "makes its own food" and does not require previously formed organic materials from the environment; e.g. photoautotroph, chemoautotroph. Heterotroph (consumer)An organism that requires chemical energy from already formed organic molecules. DetritivoreAnimal that consumes decomposing organic particles, deriving nutrition primarily from microbes on the particles. Saprotroph (decomposer)Organism that feeds by secreting digestive enzymes onto its food source and absorbing the products of digestion. Fungi and bacteria are examples. Trophic levelStage in a food chain or web leading from primary producers (lowest trophic level) through primary consumers (herbivores) to secondary and tertiary

What Is the Platt Amendment Definition and Significance

What Is the Platt Amendment Definition and Significance SAT / ACT Prep Online Guides and Tips In 1898, the US was fighting the Spanish-American War and occupying Cuba as part of its involvement in maintaining the island’s newfound independence. Once the war was over, the US still wanted to maintain influence in Cuba. In order to achieve this, the Platt Amendment was passed. Read this guide to learn what the Platt Amendment includes, why it was created, what important dates are associated with it, and how its impacts live on today, including how it led to the creation of Guantanamo Bay. What Is the Platt Amendment? In simplest terms, the Platt Amendment was a treaty between the United States and Cuba that established guidelines for US-Cuban relations. The US wanted to maintain influence in Cuba to protect its interests there, but Cubans were wary of being under the control of another foreign power after recently gaining independence from Spain. The Platt Amendment was an attempt to appease both countries. The Platt Amendment set conditions under which the US would end its military occupation of Cuba but also granted the US the right to involve itself in Cuban affairs in order to protect Cuban independence. The Platt Amendment was drafted by Elihu Root, who was Secretary of State at the time, and in 1901 it was presented to the Senate by Senator Orville Platt of Connecticut as a rider attached to the Army Appropriations Bill. (Riders are sometimes also referred to as amendments, which is why it is called the Platt Amendment.) The Platt Amendment placed some pretty stringent restrictions on Cuba. It gave the United States pretty much unlimited ability to intervene in any Cuban affair for the purpose of preserving Cuban independence, prevented Cuba from transferring any of its land to any country other than the United States, limited Cuba’s right to negotiate treaties, gave the US rights to a naval base in Cuba (what is now Guantanamo Bay). It was reluctantly accepted by Cuba, who amended their Constitution to include it. There were seven articles in the Platt Amendment, and the Cuban government had to agree to all of them before the US withdrew its troops from the island and recognized Cuban sovereignty. Here are the articles of the Platt Amendment: Article I. The Government of Cuba shall never enter into any treaty or other compact with any foreign power or powers which will impair or tend to impair the independence of Cuba, nor in any manner authorize or permit any foreign power or powers to obtain by colonization or for military or naval purposes, or otherwise, lodgment in or control over any portion of said island. Article II. The Government of Cuba shall not assume or contract any public debt to pay the interest upon which, and to make reasonable sinking-fund provision for the ultimate discharge of which, the ordinary revenues of the Island of Cuba, after defraying the current expenses of the Government, shall be inadequate. Article III. The Government of Cuba consents that the United States may exercise the right to intervene for the preservation of Cuban independence, the maintenance of a government adequate for the protection of life, property, and individual liberty, and for discharging the obligations with respect to Cuba imposed by the Treaty of Paris on the United States, now to be assumed and undertaken by the Government of Cuba. . . . Article V. The Government of Cuba will execute, and, as far as necessary, extend the plans already devised, or other plans to be mutually agreed upon, for the sanitation of the cities of the island, to the end that a recurrence of epidemic and infectious diseases may be prevented, thereby assuring protection to the people and commerce of Cuba, as well as to the commerce of the Southern ports of the United States and the people residing therein.... Article VII. To enable the United States to maintain the independence of Cuba, and to protect the people thereof, as well as for its own defense, the Government of Cuba will sell or lease to the United States lands necessary for coaling or naval stations, at certain specified points, to be agreed upon with the president of the United States. What Led to the Creation of the Platt Amendment? The Platt Amendment came about as a result of the Spanish-American War, which occurred in 1898. During the roughly four months that the war lasted, the United States had a large military presence in Cuba, which it was ready to use to protect the US against Spanish attacks and protect US economic interests in Cuba. The day before the US entered the Spanish-American War, the Teller Amendment was passed by Congress. President William McKinley gave a speech asking Congress to allow the US to use its naval and military forces to help Cuba achieve independence, and Congress agreed but also passed the Teller Amendment, which placed limits on the US’s involvement. The Teller Amendment stated that the US couldn’t annex Cuba. Instead, the US had to help Cuba achieve stable independence, then withdraw its troops from the island once that had been achieved. This assuaged Congressional fears that President McKinley was hoping to annex Cuba. However, three years after the Spanish-American War was over and Cuba was independent, the US still had troops in Cuba. The US didn’t want to put its military and economic interests at risk by having Cuba descend into chaos during self-rule or be conquered by another foreign country. They decided to maintain a strong role in Cuban affairs until they believed their interests would be safe. Because of the Teller Amendment (which basically said the US had to help Cuba achieve independence and then leave), the Platt Amendment was drafted as a way to ensure the US could maintain a degree of control over Cuba until they were certain the country was stable and their interests would be protected. Key Dates for the Platt Amendment Below are all the key dates you need to know for events that happened before, during, and after the Platt Amendment was signed. February 24th, 1895- February 15th, 1898: The Cuban War of Independence is fought between Cuba and Spain. The final months escalate into the Spanish-American war. February 15th, 1898: The American battleship USS Maine, which was docked in Havana, explodes under mysterious circumstances, killing 258 people. The US blames Spain for the explosion which leads to the Spanish-American War. April 20th, 1898: The Teller Amendment is passed. April 21st - August 13th, 1898: The Spanish-American War is fought between Spain and the United States December 10th, 1898: The Treaty of Paris is signed. Spain agrees to grant independence to Cuba, and cedes the Philippines, Guam, and Puerto Rico the United States. March 2nd, 1901: The Platt Amendment is passed. December 25th, 1901: Cuba amends its constitution to include the entire Platt Amendment May 22nd, 1903: Cuba and the US agree to the Cuban-American Treaty of Relations of 1903. Among other things, this treaty allows the US to intervene in Cuban affairs and lease land for naval bases on the island. September 1906 - February 1909: Second Occupation of Cuba. The Cuban-American Treaty of Relations of 1903 is used to justify US military forces occupying Cuba in order to protect American economic interests and establish a new Cuban government. May 29th, 1934: As part of FDR’s Good Neighbor Policy, the Cuban-American Treaty of Relations of 1934 is signed, repealing most of the Platt Amendment (everything except US right to a naval base in Cuba). 1940: The Platt Amendment is eliminated from the new Cuban constitution during the Cuban Constitutional Convention of 1940. What Are the Lasting Effects of the Platt Amendment? The Cuban government was very reluctant to add the Platt Amendment to their constitution, as they had just become independent and didn’t want to be controlled by another foreign power. Even though it was eventually ratified, it caused a lot of resentment among Cubans towards America. Many historians also believe that the Platt Amendment actually ended up causing more instability in Cuba, including contributing to the Cuban Revolution of the 1950s. The Platt Amendment remained in effect until 1934, when US President Franklin Delano Roosevelt’s Good Neighbor Policy repealed the majority of the amendment in response to a surge in Cuban resentment. However, one stipulation of the Platt Amendment remained: the US was allowed to continue operating its naval base Guantanamo Bay. The Good Neighbor Policy stated that the US had the right to operate its naval base "until the two contracting parties agree to the modification or abrogation of the stipulations of the agreement in regard to the lease to the United States of America for coaling and naval stations†¦Ã¢â‚¬  Because the US hasn’t agreed to any modifications, , Guantanamo Bay remains open to this day and has been a major factor in shaping modern Cuban-American relations. Summary: Platt Amendment APUSH The Platt Amendment was one of the most important events in Cuba-US relations. A simple Platt Amendment definition is that it an amendment passed in 1901 that provided guidelines that allowed the US to maintain influence in Cuba after Cuba achieved independence. What did the Platt Amendment do? It gave the US the right to have a naval base in Cuba, intervene in Cuban affairs, and control Cuba’s agreements with other countries, among other things. Although the Platt amendment was created to protect US interests in Cuba, it was widely resented in Cuba and was nearly completed repealed in 1934, although the US naval base Guantanamo Bay is still in operation in Cuba. What's Next? Writing a research paper for school but not sure what to write about?Our guide to research paper topics has over 100 topics in ten categories so you can be sure to find the perfect topic for you. Did you know that water has a very special density? Check out our guide to learn what the density of water is and how the density can change. Want to know the fastest and easiest ways to convert between Fahrenheit and Celsius?We've got you covered! Check out our guide to the best ways to convert Celsius to Fahrenheit (or vice versa).

Smoking Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Smoking - Essay Example Medical experts believe that there are three main reasons why teenagers smoke. The first reason is that, smoking makes the youth feel older. They often see their elders smoking and seem to look more mature so they want to be like them, mature, and all the connotations that come with being an adult. The second reason is the reason most adults would like to believe as they do not want to be the cause or influence for the youth's bad habits: peer pressure. Young adults smoke so that they would look "cool" or "in" along with their friends. They have this notion that smoking is "cool" because their idols on TV do it all the time and, of course, they all want to be "cool" as well. The third common reason is that they try to experiment. They either underestimate the addictive nature of nicotine or just want to try it because it is prohibited by their parents. But whether it's the explorative nature of the youth or their defiant nature, smoking presents to be a rather inexpensive opportunity . The reasons for continuing to smoke are slightly more varied. Smokers say that smoking keeps them up, physically and emotionally, as nicotine has similar effects to caffeine. Others say it boosts their self confidence at gatherings and that it helps them make new friends.

Pick one of the approaches of either realism, liberalism, Essay

Pick one of the approaches of either realism, liberalism, International Society or International Political Economy to show how c - Essay Example The veracity of Wendt’s positing will thus be analyzed in the ensuing discussion that is to materialize forthwith. For one, Wendt’s postulation can be seen to be true, given that it acknowledges the place of realism in international relations. Realism acknowledges the state as the most important actor in the field of diplomacy and international politics. Because of this, national governments are the most important players in international politics, in lieu of non-state actors such as international organizations (e.g., Amnesty International and the Red Cross) and eminent persons such as the Pope. Similarly, Wendt’s standpoint can also be vindicated by the credibility of constructivism in international relations. In international relations, constructivism advances the notion that important aspects of diplomacy and global politics are socially and historically contingent, rather than being inevitable consequences stemming from human nature and the dynamics of world politics. The truthfulness in Wendt’s postulation is predicated upon the fact that the state is a unitary and rational player in international relations. By being a unitary and rational player, it is meant that states speak with one voice. ... According to Jackson (2007), the standpoint immediately above validates Wendt’s postulation to the effect that the US and Soviet Union could unpredictably end the Cold War and their inimical relations because this is the very historical development that took shape. It is true that the US and the Soviet Union ended the Cold War, with the tearing down of the Berlin Wall on November 9th, 1989 and the Re-Unification of Germany on October 3rd, 1990 being done to this effect. Since then, relations between the US and members of the Soviet block have been active and relatively stable, though there have been instances of tension, as was seen in 2008 when Russia invaded Georgia, following Tbilisi’s attempts to re-exert authority and control over its breakaway regions, Abkhazia and South Ossetia. The immediately foregoing illustrates that states are the chief actors in international relations and that they are unitary and rational in their actions. The US, having its domestic acto rs such as the Congress (just as the Soviet Union) and local political games, is a matter that does not hinder it from identifying its chief national interest (Jervis & Art, 1985). The Soviet Union and the United States, having the prerogatives to end the Cold War if they had wished to, is a matter that is underscored by them being the very participants who stoked the Cold War tension against each other. This is well illustrated by the Cuban Missile Crisis, which took place between 16th and 28th of October 1962, as the most serious Cold War standoff between America and the Soviet Union. Having discovered the Soviet Union’s intention to position nuclear missiles in the Socialist Cuba, the US dispatched naval blockade to stop Soviet Union ships from varying missiles to Cuba. On

The influence of leadership styles

The influence of leadership styles 1.1 Background of the Study The study is on the influence of leadership styles, mediated by corporate culture that leads to employee reactions based on their perceptions. The study of leadership is not a recent phenomenon. Various literatures pertaining to styles in leadership indicated that it could be perceived as effective when those styles were able to adjust accordingly depending on the situation as being confronted by the individual leader (Bruno and Lay, 2008). According to Byrme and Bradley (2007) and Koene, Vogelaar and Soeters (2002), prior studies have underscored that effective styles in leadership has been a set of process in promoting competitive advantage and as an important element to the followers (Cassiday, 2005), a recognition through the importance of effectiveness in communication as a mixture of various factors (Church, Katigbak, Reyes, Salanga, Miramontes and Adam, 2008), rather than a single variable in defining a perplexing concept (Ligon, Hunter and Mumford, 2008; Mello, 1999). Leadership is an ongoing process of interaction between organisational leaders and their subordinates whereby a leader often attempts to influence the behaviour of their subordinates to obtain goals as set by the organisation (Yukl, 2005). Earlier, leadership was identified as the basic preference of being influential (Krause, 2004). Thus, leadership is a systematic series of action by which an individual influences the ideas, feelings, and actions of others. Leaders have to provide guidance, to facilitate in foreseeing upcoming event; to facilitate in recalling achievements; to motivate and to inspire their people. The acts of leadership drive us toward the same direction and equipped our efforts in common. Leadership is the capacity to take hold of other to perform significant task that they may decline. It is the process of supporting others toward goal-attainment. On the flip side of the coin, with the absence of leadership, a group of individuals shall engage into contention and disagreement due to matters are seen differently and to incline in different process of solving problems. This means that the level of importance for individual or organisational leaders to positively transform the societies and the business world is crucial. For example, according to Kouzes and Posner (2002) prior studies found U.S. businesses made claimed that leadership has not been realised to be a necessity tool until today. In order to face the era of ever demanding and evolving business condition, organisations need to be led by leaders who are capable enough to manage the unpredictable conditions. Therefore, the aspect of leadership is often demanded leaders to engage to walk the talk, to reduce the gap between adopted values and their actual behaviours. This is where leadership oblige an individual to inquire favourable options in enabling others to engage in an unpleasant frustration in reality (Heifetz and Linsky, 2004). Leaders will not be able to address issues as dictated by the modern business world except under the circumstances that they are capable to aid in such abilities allowing them to lead effectively in a complex and unpredictable business climate as most organisational leaders lead through their personal values and beliefs. Leaders must also realise that leadership is a responsibility and not to be treated as personal gratification in organisations top hierarchy. As Naisbitt and Aburdene (1990 in Winston and Patterson, 2006) stated that leaders are in position to demonstrate strong commitment and always highly motivated by becoming role models who owns valuable traits such as consistency, open-mindedness, and high disciplined. Through these traits it would generate more strength and confidence that shall inspire their subordinates. Meanwhile, House, Hanges, Javidan, Dorfman and Gupta (2004) stressed that an instance of seeking the righteous definition term for effective leadership has been extended over a considerable time as indication of significance worth topic of debate. Effective leadership are now crucial to inspire others to work effectively toward various goals as set by organisation and to enhance job performance and organisational success. Thus, to promote effective leadership, it is essentially important for organisational leaders to have influence over their superiors, peers and subordinates to guide and to sustain their proposals, ideas and induce them in performing their own decisions (Blickle, 2003; Drouillard and Kleiner, 1999). It has been a necessity in understanding the relationship between leadership and leader effectiveness in order to identify ways to increase employee motivation level pertaining to achievement in organisational performance (Silverthorne, 2000). As Moorhead and Griffin (1995 in Barbuto Jr., 2000) stated performance behaviour reflects as a set of work-related behaviour that an individual should demonstrate in organisation. However, when this topic discussed across different cultural condition it tends to set forth limitations in the level of knowledge and the insight (Drost and Von Glinow, 1998 in Pellegrini and Scandura, 2008). Leadership exists in various societies and is essential to the functioning of organisations within societies. The attributes that are seen as characteristics for leaders may vary across cultures (Den Hartog, House and Hanges, 1999). Several different cultures most often exist within an organisation, but there is also a predominant corporate culture, expressing central values that are shared by the majority (Abrahamsson and Andersen, 1996). According to Hofstede (1994) corporate culture is a phenomenon that differs from national culture, perhaps most evidently because employees are free to leave the corporation. The organisation is described as a social system, in which the employees are involved only during working hours. The corporate culture may however also influence the leisure time of employees. Schein (1992) analysed culture regarding its degree of visibility and describes three different levels. Basic underlying assumptions constitute the least visible level, which includes unconscious perceptions, thoughts, feelings and beliefs. Espoused values include strategies, goals and philosophies and artefacts all visible organisational structures and procedures. For instance, a survey by Fortune of most admired companies has highlighted CEO respondents belief that organisation culture was their most important tool in order to enhance their key capabilities. Given that the importance of organisational culture and its effects on employees job performance and satisfaction and organisational commitment outcomes and it is considered as one of the sensational business topics in both academic field of research and popular articles. Judge, Bono, Ilies and Gerhardt (2002) found that based upon the previous studies on the great man theory, the organisational conditions act as a main determinant of leadership; and that leaders act differently in various situation (Yukl, 2002). Therefore, Bass (1985 in Kavanagh and Ashkanasy, 2006) recommended that leaders must actively promote positive transformation in their organisation by directing clear objective; also through strong persuasive personal characteristics and actions in transforming internal forms of organisational culture and substance ([Bass and Avolio, 1994 in Gardner, Avolio, Luthans, May and Wolumbwa (2005); Hatch, 1993 in Awbrey (2005); Porras and Robertson, 1992 in Caldwell (2003]). Schein (1992 in Twati and Gammack, 2006) acknowledged that leaders in organisations serve as a key influential of organisational culture; and since organisational condition and culture reflect on collective social development over which leaders have total control and influence (Mumford, Scott, Gaddis and Strange, 2002). Organisational culture is known to have a significant effect on how employees view their organisational responsibilities and their commitment. Hence, in the same vein, styles in leadership and organisation cultural categories, together with its effects on employees reaction such as job performance, job satisfaction, job commitment and trust in management are part of the significant elements in determining the effectiveness, competitiveness and success of organisations in facing todays challenges. Of course, organisational effectiveness, competitiveness and success shall definitely have its usefulness implications upon managers and employees and ultimately enhancing better performance of both components in any organisational set ups. In this condition, leaders need to determine the best set of actions that are achievable within the ability of their organisations. 1.2 Problem Statement As one of a developing country in South East Asia, Malaysia sees leadership effectiveness is highly significant in Government-linked-companies (GLC) to shift toward exceptionally outstanding level of performance. The Government-linked-companies (GLC) transformation programme for instance, was initiated and treated as part of current strategy of Malaysian government to enhance development and stimulate the economy growth as producers, service providers, employers and capital market constituents in the near future. Respectively, Government-linked companies (GLC) serves as an important asset in the economic structure of the nation since it is worth for approximately RM 260 billion in market capitalisation of 36% and 54% of the market capitalisation in Bursa Malaysia and as a benchmark in Kuala Lumpur Composite Index (www.treasury.gov.my). It also contributes in 5% of the national workforce and it remains as the main service providers to the nation in key strategic utilities and services including electricity, telecommunications, postal services, airlines, airports, public transport, water and sewerage, banking and financial services. Therefore, of the major concern for Malaysian organisation especially in the Government-linked companies (GLC) is to stimulate better job satisfaction, organisational commitment and trust in management among its employees. This urgency was due to the management in GLC was labelled as underperformed in terms of its operations and financial indicators since 1990. Thylefors (1991) argues that leadership style or attitudes emanate from leaders personality, in a wider definition. Techniques are important but are inferior to the leaders attitudes. The underlying values and motives of the leaders are the factors that determine whether a leader is successful and appreciated by their subordinates or not. Therefore, there can be effective and appreciated leaders exhibiting different leadership styles. In this particular concern, Eid, Johnsen, Bartone and Nissestad (2008) debated that even though the leadership styles such as transformational and transactional leadership has been researched for the last 15 years, theres still a small amount of studies pertaining to how these styles of leadership been investigated in different culture and work setting. Thus, the problem statement of this research is represented by a main question such as follows: How can the perceptions in leadership styles differences, through the corporate culture help to improve on organisational outcomes and reactions? Despite various attempts of research on leadership traits, characteristics, styles, contingency factors and perception of leader performance and effectiveness, organisational leaders were also summoned to actively interact with and influence others in leading their organisations. It has been realised that less discussion in applying these concepts on Government-linked-companies (GLC) in the context of Malaysia. The general perception by the general public is that private organisations perform better compared to the government owned organisations (Cochran, Mayer, Carr and Cayer, 2003). This applies to current situation in Malaysia as (Azman, 2004; PCG, 2006a) stressed that most observers commented Government-linked companies (GLC) are multi-national status but sustain damages due to arising problems related to internal control, lack of strategic direction which results in destitute on their value in capital and shareholder, low number in production, elevated toward gearing ratio, inefficient in procurement process, and ineffective systems of performance management. This application concept in Government-linked companies (GLC) has also come into another highlight with the selection of its senior managers. The Malaysian government as the main shareholder in the GLC have taken great pains to nominate candidates on the basis of the best candidate fits for the job (Abdullah, 2004; Yakcop, 2004). This is due to situational pressure was put into various levels of GLC in Malaysia to reform its managerial exercises and to change the organisation in order to meet the new realities in accordance to GLC Transformation Programme introduced in 2004. Therefore, these challenges suits well for charismatic or transformational leadership with hope to perform excellently in the organisation. Based on how leaders are valued, appreciated and respected in the working environment, subordinates or employees at various levels create an impression on their leaders (Altman, 2002; Roberts, 2001). Organisational research on leadership indicated that there was no one perfect style of leadership based on the different types of organisational conditions (Kouzes and Posner, 1997). More importantly, leadership style as being practiced in public sectors is considered as transactional exchange since political support and encouragement was much favoured; for example, typical Government-linked-companies (GLC) are run by government nominated individuals. These nominated candidates will be held responsible in the organisations daily operations. As such, important decisions in the economic sector of the government are left to appointed individuals. The appointed individual for the top management position in the Government-linked-companies (GLC) may have been exposed to various management styles; however, the primary responsibilities and decision making processes were placed on these individuals, who may or may not have various exposures to management styles and theories. As Yakcop (2004 in www.treasury.gov.my ) says, The point to be made is that there are no artificial barriers with respect to age or gender, whether from internal or external sources, and whether from financial or non-financial background. Javidan and Waldman (2003) contend that there have been little references pertaining to charismatic leadership in the public sector based on literature review although this subject of study has been around for ten years. Many charismatic leaders are skilled in formulating strategy that would improve on the current situation. While there has been less discussion on leadership in the public sector, fewer studies indicate whether or not leaders who practiced transformational leadership could expect improvement in their subordinates (Burke, Stagl, Klein, Goodwin, Salas and Halpin, 2006; Prati, Douglas, Ferris, Ammeter and Buckley, 2003; Wofford, Whitington and Goodwin, 2001). According to Parry and Proctor-Thompson (2003) a study of leadership in a federal government had revealed that the transformational leadership approach would result in a higher level of productivity and improved employee satisfaction and job performance. Transformational supervision was defined by Bass (1985) in terms of leaders motivational effect on followers. They feel loyalty, trust, admiration and respect toward the transformational leader. The followers are motivated to serve and achieve more than they were originally expected to. They are inspired to achieve higher-order needs and are made more aware of the organisations needs for their unique skills and talents. Further, leaders who truly show charismatic leadership and exercise the transformational approach are those who view their array of vision as certain and have high confidence in their abilities and skills. According to Conger, Kanungo and Menon (2000), the higher the level of self-confidence showed by a leader, the higher their followers will reduce on uncertainties. A charismatic and transformational leader has extended a great amount of effort in their current attempt to achieve their future goals. This study is worthy of consideration because it applies a validated means of measurement, specifically the Multifactor Leadership Questionnaire (MLQ), the most accepted instrument to evaluate transformational theory (Kirkbride, 2006) and considered the best validated measurement for both transformational and transactional leadership (Ozaralli, 2003).Therefore, this study shifts the traditional paradigm in leadership studies of business organisations where it explores the leadership in the Government-linked-companies (GLC) settings, its organisational culture dimensions and employees reaction or response. Van De Berg and Wilderom (2004) concurred that styles in leadership and organisational culture are both closely related. Most of the published literatures in organisational culture prove indistinctiveness between these two components. As Van De Berg and Wilderom (2004, p.578) highlighted there are two important distinction between the two components as mentioned (1) leadership denotes behaviour displayed by one or only few individuals, while culture is a collective behavioural phenomenon, and (2) leadership involves a potentially one-sided dependency relationship. The current issue that to be addressed in this study is despite several desirable outcomes by adapting the transformational leadership concept; there is some lack of research in adopting leadership styles in the Government-linked companies (GLC). The outcomes of the transformational leadership approach are such as the employees reactions or responses on their level of performance, organisational commitment and job satisfaction have not been realised in transactional leadership condition. In order to obtain significant data, the Multifactor Leadership Questionnaire (MLQ, 5x) developed by Bass and Avolio (1997) was applied to measure how those factors of leadership styles are linked to the perceived organisational culture in the Government-linked-companies (GLC), particularly in the Malaysian perspective. The problem as presented is to seek and to differentiate the results derived from transactional, transformational and laissez-faire situation and to see whether transformational situation is highly correlated to six variables of the Multifactor Leadership Questionnaire (MLQ, 5x) developed by Bass and Avolio (1997) namely; (1) charisma or inspirational, (2) intellectual stimulation, (3) individual consideration, (4) contingent rewards, (5) active management by exception and (6) passive avoidant was used to measure how those factors of transformational change are related to organisational culture in Government-linked-companies (GLC) in Malaysia. Based on Bass and Avolios (1994; 2004) definitions, the specific variables are such as follows: Charisma/inspirational motivation (IM) The way that organisational leaders behave that energises and inspires others by providing meaning and challenge toward their task. Intellectual stimulation (IS) The way organisational leaders behave that promotes subordinates efforts in becoming creative and innovative through analysing assumptions, reframing problems, and remodelling old systems into new systems. Individualised consideration (IC) The way organisational leaders focus on understanding the needs of each individual and how leaders act as a coach and mentor to individuals to further achieve and grow. Contingent reward (CR) This style of leadership consists of communication levels between organisational leaders and their subordinates that stresses on exchange, where the leaders provide appropriate rewards when subordinates achieved the target goals. Active management- by- exception (AMBE) Leaders focus on monitoring task execution for any errors that might arise and correct those problems so as to maintain a standard of high performance. Passive avoidant (PA) Leaders tends to react passively only after problems, mistakes and errors have become serious and later take corrective action and may avoid making any decisions at all. These six variables were considered and compared to the results of employees reactions and outcomes such as their overall job performance, job satisfaction, organisational commitment and trust in management. In addition, other variable such as organizational culture was also examined to study the relationship and correlation of the leadership styles. 1.3 Research Questions According to Zikmund (2000), research question is a set of specific query which addressed by the researcher who sets the parameters of the study and suggests appropriate methods to be used for data gathering and analysis purposes. In general, researchers were urged to develop questions that may assist to search for answers and provide any possible solutions to the research problem being studied. Therefore, in this study, attempts to answer those questionnaires are actually to solve the research problem which has been identified. Specifically, the research questions were developed for this study examines the relationship of individual leadership styles and organisations cultural traits as perceived by their subordinates by examining the differentiation in leaders leadership styles. Based on the research objectives, the following questions were developed as follows: Does the elements of transformational style in leadership is significantly positive with the cultural traits in Government-linked companies perceived by their employees? Does the elements of transactional style in leadership is significantly positive with the cultural traits in Government-linked companies perceived by their employees? Does the listed elements of laissez-faire style in leadership is significantly positive toward organisational culture in GLCs? Does the listed elements of laissez-faire style in leadership is significantly positive with the cultural traits in Government-linked companies perceived by their employees? Do the cultural traits positively mediate the relationship between the leadership styles with employees job satisfaction, organisational commitment and trust in management? Do the cultural traits positively determine on the employees level of job satisfaction, organisational commitment and trust in their management? Do the styles in leadership practised by organisational leaders positively influence on the organisational members job satisfaction, organisational commitment and trust in their management? 1.3.1 Definition of Operational Terms In this section, the terms utilised in this study was stated and the numbering of those terms measured in Multifactor Leadership Questionnaires (MLQ) questions are indicated as follows: Contingent Rewards was defined as an incentives or gifts to organisational members who have attained excellent level of performance (Bass and Avolio, 1995 in Bass, Avolio, Jung and Berson, 2003). It was measured in Q1, Q11, Q16 and Q35 in Multifactor Leadership Questionnaire (MLQ). Dependent Variables in this study list the leaders individual skills, experiences, attitudes and level of adaptability that were defined and measured in the job performance questionnaires. Subordinates refers to followers who are directly involved in the process of task completion and socio-emotional acceptance of leadership (Bass and Avolio, 1994 in McColl-Kennedy and Anderson, 2002). Idealised Influence refers to the attribution and behaviour that result in the subordinates level of admiration, respect and trust, which discounts their resistance to change and develops a sense of charismatic leadership (Bass and Avolio, 1995 in Piccolo and Colquitt, 2006). This element was included in transformational measurement and was part of the independent variable in attribution Q10, Q18, Q21 and Q25 and behaviour Q6, Q14, Q23 and Q34 in the Multifactor Leadership Questionnaire (MLQ). Individualised Consideration refers to a behaviour that promotes personal attention to organisational members needs and trusts in order to assist them in the learning process (Bass and Avolio, 1995 in Piccolo and Colquitt, 2006). It is measured as an independent variable (transformational) in Q15, Q19, Q29 and Q31 in the Multifactor Leadership Questionnaire (MLQ). Inspirational Motivation is a kind of behaviour that displays meaning and challenges to subordinates task and inspiration, arouses and excites the organisational leader to promote vision (Bass and Avolio, 1995 in Piccolo and Colquitt, 2006) and it is measured in Q9, Q13, Q26 and Q36 in the Multifactor Leadership Questionnaire (MLQ). Intellectual stimulation is a type of behaviour that encourages new styles of approaches to perform organisational tasks and to generate a direction of potential ideas that challenge subordinates and encourage them to look into new ways of idea generation (Bass and Avolio, 1995 in Piccolo and Colquitt, 2006). It was measured as transformational in the independent variables in Q2, Q8, Q30 and Q32 in the Multifactor Leadership Questionnaire (MLQ). Job satisfaction is referred to as an individuals behaviour or behaviour in their current job (Moorhead and Griffin, 1995 in Kassabgy, Boraie and Schmidt, 2001). Therefore, it is the situation where subordinates believe in their level of happiness among one another (Bass and Avolio, 1995 in Piccolo and Colquitt, 2006). Laissez-Faire promotes the condition of leadership avoidance or absence (Bass and Avolio, 1995 in Piccolo and Colquitt, 2006) and measured in independent variables in Q5, Q7, Q28 and Q33 in the Multifactor Leadership Questionnaire (MLQ). Leaders are those who are nominated as head of a group, team or even an organisation. They are the people who have charisma in their leadership and have the capability in making decisions and inspire others to derive achievement through a common goal (OLeary, 2000). Leadership is defined as an individual ability to influence others (Stahl, 1995 in Irechukwu, 2010); to shape and embed values, attitudes, beliefs and behaviours consistent with employee commitment in the process of accomplishing specific goals. A style of Leadership is an individual character that includes transactional, transformational and laissez-faire. Management is defined as the development and continuous improvement on an organisations system and when applied by any organisational employees could lead towards an increased value in products and services for stakeholders (Stahl, 1995 in Irechukwu, 2010). Management by exception (active and passive) according to Bass and Avolio (1995 in Barling, Slater and Kelloway, 2000; Bass, Avolio, Jung and Berson, 2003) is an action or steps employed by organisational leaders when things are not according to plan. This term is treated as transactional independent variable and is measured through Multifactor Leadership Questionnaire (MLQ) active: Q4, Q22, Q24 and Q27, and passive: Q3, Q12, Q17 and Q20. Organisational Outcomes in this study is referred to the employees responses in the Government-linked-companies (GLC) through survey questionnaire and all of those measures were all based on their perceptions. Perception is defined as a set of processes where an individual receives and translates data pertaining to their observation and condition (den Brok, Bergen, Stahl and Brekelmans, 2004). Performance Behaviour is the overall ratings on task-related behaviours that would result through the actions or effort displayed by organisational members (Moorhead and Griffin, 1989 in Garg and Rastogi, 2006). Transactional Leadership is a type of leadership that acknowledges subordinates needs and identifies how those needs can be fulfilled in exchange for the subordinates satisfactory effort and performance. It is composed of contingency reward and management-by-exception either active or passive (Bass, Avolio and Jung, 1995 in Judge and Piccolo, 2004). Transformational Leadership is another type of leadership which comprises of set abilities that permits a leader to identify the need for organisational change; and to promote a clear vision as guidance towards change through effective process (Moorhead and Griffin, 1995 in Kassabgy, Boraie and Schmidt, 2001). Organisational Culture is referred to the shared set of beliefs, expectations, values, norms, and work routines that influence the ways in which individuals, groups, and teams interact with one another and cooperate to achieve organisational goals (Jones and George, 2009; Daft, 2005). 1.4 Research Objectives Intensive studies have been conducted on leadership particularly on its traits, individual characterisation, its styles and contingency factors (Lord and Smith, 1999). Throughout the years, most of these leadership studies and organisational culture were researched in Western developed countries (e.g. Lok and Crawford, 2003; Ogbonna and Harris, 2000; Kuchinke, 1999; Yousef, 1998). For instance, the pioneering work of Deal and Kennedy (1982) incited the interest of researchers and consultants to the concept of corporate culture, and how these values and philosophy guide the employees behaviour in the organisation towards greater success. Leaders affect their subordinates both directly through their interactions and also through the organisations culture (Li, 2004). As Amabile (1998 in McLean, 2005) suggested that by influencing on the work condition and organisational culture, leaders are able to impact on the organisational members behaviour as related to task and motivation. Here, the challenge is to employ a set of actions that are practical within the capacity of the organisation to acquire change and manage organisations resources. Leadership has been a significant topic in organisational studies because leaders are exemplar figures in enhancing their group performances (Mehra, Dixon, Brass and Robertson, 2006). Studies have found that several theories resulting from the early leadership traits, behaviours and situational approaches proceed on the explanation of leaders attribution, charisma and transformational perspectives between leadership and group performance relations. Hence, leaders are required to react more flexibly and manage effectively into this ambiguity and change (Blass and Ferris, 2007; Dickson, Resick and Hanges, 2006; Dickson, Hartog and Mitchelson, 2003). According to Bass (1990) more than 7500 research studies on leadership was performed since early of the last century. Leadership styles were largely studied and the findings were documented accordingly in leadership literature focussing on individual leaders characteristics in leading others in performing their tasks (Moore and Rudd, 2006). Leaders have an opportunity to obtain organisational power and it depends on their motives and available resources to influence their subordinates. Further, Elloy, Everett and Flynn (1987 in Mester, Visser, Roodt and Kellerman, 2003) affirmed that organisational leaders behaviour are closely associated to their level of performance and leadership styles as determinants tool of their effectiveness in an organisation. In relation to this, styles of leadership are seen as the main component to sustain organisational effectiveness toward business performance (Howell and Avolio, 1993 in Hallinger, 2003). Thus, if stakeholders start to direct more attention on

Meiosis Modeling Activity Essay

Background Information Meiosis is the process by which eukaryotic organisms produce egg and sperm having half the genetic information (haploid) of the other cells in the organism’s body (diploid). You will notice some similarities to mitosis but some definite differences in meiosis that result in genetic diversity in the gametes as well as the offspring formed by the eventual fusion of the egg and sperm. Two of the most noted differences in meiosis are that 1) there are two complete divisions resulting in four daughter cells and, 2) meiosis has crossing over, an even that occurs in Prophase I that increases genetic variation in the gametes. Crossing over occurs between homologous chromosomes. These are the pairs of chromosomes in an organisms body that carry genes for the same trait located at identical positions on the two chromosomes. Even though they carry the same gene they may, however, possess different alleles for the gene which result in different forms of the trait. Pre-Lab: 1. Draw a tetrad in the space below and label the following: centromeres, sister chromatids, homologous chromosomes. 2. What are the two elements of meiosis that add variation to our population? (Hint: one occurs in prophase I and the other in metaphase I). 3. Which of the chromosomes #2-5 could be homologous with chromosome #1? Explain your answer. I think number 5 because it is the exact same as 1. Lab: 1. First view the recording on my message board under â€Å"Supplemental Learning Materials† for this lab. You will need the â€Å"code words† from the recording for one of your conclusion questions. Link to recording: http://www.connectionslivelesson.com/p2fwrdno8yk/ 2. After you have viewed the recording, gather your required materials. You will need 4 forks, 4 knives, 4 spoons, 6 rubber bands, and some twine or string to use as cell membrane. If you can have two different types of flatware that would be best (for example: 2 forks, 2 knives, and 2 spoons that are different than the other set of 2 forks, 2 knives, and 2 spoons). 3. Your model cell consists of 6 chromosomes (3 homologous pairs). Use the string to form the cell membrane for your cell(s). Begin with two forks, two knives, and two spoons (one of each from each set) inside your string cell membrane as shown in the recording. Proceed through each of the steps of meiosis using your flatware â€Å"chromosomes.† Use the textbook pages 324-325 for help. Phase Modeling Interphase Replicate the DNA of your chromosomes by adding a second fork, knife, or spoon to each existing fork, knife, and spoon. Hold each pair of â€Å"chromatids† together with a rubber band (centromere). Prophase I Create tetrads (XX) by pairing homologous chromosomes (set them next to each other). Model crossing over as best you can given the model we are using. Metaphase I Line up your tetrads along the metaphase plate. Model independent assortment. Anaphase I Move the homologous chromosomes to opposite ends of the cell. Telophase I You should have three chromosomes, knife, fork, and spoon, (each composed of two chromatids) in each of your two nuclei. Cytokinesis I Divide your cell membrane so that you have two daughter cells (two string circles for cells). Prophase II Check to make sure that each of your two cells contains three chromosomes made up of sister chromatids. Metaphase II Line your chromosomes up along the middle of each of your cells. Anaphase II Separate your sister chromatids (remove rubber band holding them together). Move one sister chromatid from each chromosome to opposite sides of your cell. Telophase II You should now have four nuclei, with three single chromosomes in each of the  cells. Cytokinesis II Divide your cell membranes so that you have four daughter cells (use more string). Data: Take 3 photos or create 3 drawings of your model as it looked in 3 different stages of meiosis as described in the table above. Indicate which stage of meiosis is shown in each photo/drawing. Include the photos or a scan of the sketches when you upload your lab to the drop box. Conclusion (6 points) 1. List the two code words that were given in the lab recording found on my message board. Chromosomes and fertilization 2. Does mitosis more closely resemble meiosis I or meiosis II? Explain your answer. More like Meiosis I because it only made two cells. 3. What is crossing over? When does it occur during meiosis? Why did you have difficulty modeling this element of meiosis using your â€Å"chromosomes?† Crossing over is the process in which homologous chromosomes exchange portions of their chromatids during meiosis. It occurs during prophase I. I had a hard time because you can’t really change the chromosomes so it was difficult to show. 4. Think about your modeling. Visually, what is the major difference between the separation of chromosomes between anaphase I and anaphase II There were four to separate then just two. 5. What is independent assortment? When does it occur during meiosis? How did you model this element of meiosis? 6. Which part of meiosis, meiosis I or meiosis II, is responsible for reducing the chromosome number by half in the cell? MEIOSIS II

A Comparative Analysis of Two Theories-One of Each You...

Running Head: HEALTH PROMOTION Health Promotion [Name of the writer] [Name of the institution] Health Promotion Introduction The concept of health promotion initially emerged and continues to gain strength as an approach to improving health status and health condition of people. Health promotion is a key component of the complex relationship between actions, knowledge, attitudes, behaviour, and health outcomes from the individual to the societal level. Health promotion is increasingly applicable and relevant to practice within health care and health research specialty around the world. This paper aims at exploring the fundamental concepts of health, health promotion, and multiple†¦show more content†¦Main weakness that has been observed in this medical approach for health promotion is its less focus on positive health. It also overlooks the social and environmental dimensions that are related to health promotion (Crosby 2009, 143). However, main implication of this approach is the remarkable impact on reduction in disease rates associated mortality. The Behavioural Change Approach The behavioural change approach places concern on the patient willingness for recovery of their health. This approach places concern on behaviour and attitude change that subsequently change the lifestyle of people (Crosby 2009, 91). Remarkable implication of this approach is that it aims at building healthy lifestyle. In this approach, role of health experts is very crucial, as they determine the behaviours that are good or bad for health. Main aim of this approach is to encourage individuals to adopt healthy behaviours, which subsequently lead to healthy lifestyle (Hayden 2009, 102). Under behavioural approach, concern is placed on individuals to adopt healthy behaviours, which directly impact their motivation level for health promotion. 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